THE 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE 



LAND DRAINAGE 



F.MBRAriNT. 

A BRIEF HISTORY OF IJNDERDRAINING ; A DETAILED EXAMINA- 
TION OF ITS OPERATION AND ADVANTAGES: A DESCRIP- 
TION OP VARIOUS KINDS OF DRAINS, AVITII PRAC- 
TICAL DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR CONSTRUCTION : 
THE MANUFACTURE OP DRAIN-TILE, ETC. 



Illustrated by nearly 100 Engi'avings. 



By JOHN H. KLIPPART, 

Author of the " Wheat Plant," Correspomling Seoretnry of the Ohio Stnie 
Board of Agrieulture, Eto. 



CINCINNATI: 

ROBERT CLARKE & CO, 

PlBI.ISHFKS AN"D BOOKSFM.ERS. 

18 1. 



V,v.< 



-V>/ 



Entered, according to ant of Congress, in the yenr 1801, 

By ROBERT CLARKE 1' f!0., 

In the Clerk's Otrir-e of the District Court of the United States for the 
Southern District of Ohio. 



CINCINNATI: 

E . MORGAN- i- S X S , 

Stercoli/pers n»(J PrinlcrK, 111 Main Si. 



PREFACE. 



This treatise is presented to the public as a brief dis- 
cussion of the most important considerations involved in 
Land Drainage. The writer has not aimed to produce an 
original work, but has endeavored to collate well ascer- 
tained facts, and present them in as brief a space as the 
nature of the subject would permit. The productions of 
the best writers on the subject in Great Britain, France 
and Germany, as well as the current agricultural publica- 
tions of this country, whether serial or otherwise, have 
been consulted in the preparation of this volume ; while 
the numerous opportunities which presented themselves 
to the author, in fulfilling his duties in connection with 
the State Board of Agriculture, for observing the prac- 
tical details of the work by visiting places where draining 
operations were conducted, tile manufactured, etc., have 
been cheerfully embraced, and the results embodied in 
the work. 

It may not be improper to state that the work Avas un- 
dertaken at the earnest solicitation of the Committee on 
Agriculture of the Ohio Legislature, during the session 
of 1858-9. The engravings were ordered and the greater 
portion of them finished before the appearance of Judge 
French's excellent work on the same subject ; it was then 
too late to abandon the project. 

The work is respectfully submitted to the judgment of 
the farmers of the Great Northwest, in the hope that it 
may be found not altogether unuseful to them in their en- 
deavors to improve their property. 

(iii) 



CONTENTS. 



— «. — 

INTRODUCTORY. 

Definition, 1 

History of Drainage among the Ancients, .... 4 

Drain Pipes used in Prance, A. D. 1620, 13 

Drainage in England, -------- 15 

Drainage in France, 26 

Drainage in the United States, -.-..- 27 

PART I.— THEORY OF DRAINAGE. 

Introduction, 39 

Chapter I. Properties of Soils, 42 

Chapter II. How Drainage operates — How it affects Soils, 60 
Chapter III. Drainage removes Stagnant Waters from the 

Surface, 72 

Chapter IV. Drainage removes Surplus Water from under 

the Surface, 98 

Chapter V. Drainage lengthens the Working Season, - 112 

Chapter VI. Drainage deepens the Soil, - - - 119 

Chapter VII. Drainage warms the Undersoil, - - - 128 

(V) 



Vi CONTENTS. 

Chapter VIII. Drainage equalizes the Temperature of the 

Soil during the Season of Growth, - - 133 
Chapter IX. Drainage carries down Soluble Substances to 

the Roots of Plants, - - - - 134 
Chapter X. Drainage prevents " Heaving out," " Freezing 

out," or " Winter killing," - - - 144 
Chapter XI. Drainage prevents injury from Drought, - 147 
Chapter nil. Drainage improves the Quantity and Quality 

of the Crops, 153 

Chapter XIII. Drainage increases the Effects of Manures, 165 
Chapter XIV. Drainage prevents Rust in Wheat, and Rot 

in Potatoes, 169 

Chapter XV. Other Advantages of Draining, - - - 171 

Chapter XVI. Will Drainage pay ? 173 

Chapter XVII. What lands need Draining, - - - 177 
Chapter XVIII. On the Absorbing Qualities of Soil, and Ana- 
lysis of Drain Water, - - - - 187 



CONTENTS. 



VU 



« 

PART II.— PKACTICE OF DRAINAGE. 

]. Practical Drainage, lilT 

Materials for keeping Open the Water- 
courses, - - - - - - - lili> 

Brush Drains, -....- 222 

Plug, or Subsoil Draining, - - - - 225 

Wedge, or Shoulder Drains, - - - 229 

Mole Plow Draining, 231 

Sheep Drains, .-,... 248 

Stone Drains, 250 

Tile Drains, - 2GJ 

II. Size of Tile, - - ' - - - - 272 
Caliber and Minimum Fall of Drain Pipe 

Tile, 27a 

Discharge of Water through Pipes, - - 281 

III. Depth of Drains, 284 

IV. Distance between Drains, - - - - 301 
V. Manufixcture of Tile, . . - - . 324 

Selection of Materials, .... 324 

'J'he Pug Mill, 339 

The Holler Mill, 340 

Tile Machines, 342 

Pressing the Pipe.s, 348 

Drying Tile, 349 

Rolling and Rimming Tile, - - - 354 

Tile Burninsi;, ----..- 355 



Vlll 

Chapter 



Chapter VJ. 
Chapter VJI. 
Chapter YJII. 
Chapter IX. 
Chapter X. 

Chapter XI. 
Chapter XII. 
Chapter XIIT. 
Conclusion, 
Appendix — Laws 
Index, 



CONTENTS. 
Manufacture of Tile — Contimted. 

Tile Kilns, 356 

Fuel, - - 359 

How AVater enters the Pipes, - - - 363 

Durability of Tile, 367 

Laying out Drains, - - - . . 370 

Main Drains, - - 381 

Draining Tools, Instruments, etc., - - 387 

Digging Underdrains, 394 

Time to cut Drains and lay Tile, - - 410 

Obstructions in Drains, 414 

421 

of Ohio relating to Drainage, - - - - 425 
433 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



INTRODUCTORY 



DEFINITIOX. 



Drainage of land, or farm drainage, may be defined as 
being a process by -wliich wet and unhealthy soils may be 
rendered arable and healthy, as Avell as to remove excess- 
ive moisture in lands not generally considered too wet. 

The word drainage, when used in an isolated sense, 
means di'ying up, running ofi" of stagnant water. It is 
also applied to a series of works which are undertaken in 
order to improve the sanitary condition of Avhole sections 
of country or a large city, to change the course of a 
river, and to protect its cultivated banks against floods. 
General drainage is that which constitutes a whole sys- 
tem of great works stretching over entire valleys, and 
regulate all its running water ; agricultural drainage re- 
fers to fields only. 

Drainage, as practiced at the present time, is an im- 
provement, or a transformation of the old system for dry- 
ing up moist soils by means of trenches or ditches, for 
the discharge of water, which was known and resorted to 
everywhere in former times. 

It is, nevertheless, true, that the transition or change 

from trenches or uncovered ditches filled with stones, to 

the new mode of draining, was a slow process, which may 

explain why many persons, when they learn of the " new " 

2 I 



2 LAND DRAINAGE. 

drainage, will exclaim : " But this is not new, that was 
practiced by our fathers." These persons are right. 
But, as far as arts and science are concerned, all is be- 
coming singularly perfect in our days, so that we do not 
always recognize the starting point. This was the case 
with the new system of drainage which conducts the ex- 
cess of water from tillable lands through earthen pipes 
of moderate length, placed under ground at a depth of 
Trom three to four feet. 

But how can the water be led oflf through such earthen 
pipes ? we often have been asked. In 1852, Mr. Daniol, 
a skillful agriculturist, at Clermont Ferrant, in France^ 
wrote to Mons. Barras, editor of an agricultural journal : 

" New words used by scientific writers often cause embarrass- 
ment to their readers. When the Journal of Practical Agriculture 
indicates drainage as a potent system of rendering wet lands arable ; 
when you praised the advantages which are obtained in England and 
Belgium, you excited my curiosity and highly engrossed my atten- 
tion. But having discovered that drainage is the very thing we re- 
sort to from father to son, and which we name like Oliver de 
Serres, suhterranean passages, I experienced a sense of satisfaction 
and said to myself, is that all ? what next ? 

" Next, you indicate, for the purpose, earthen pipes as the most 
efficient and economic implement! I vainly endeavored to per- 
ceive how water in excess at the surface could penetrate into these 
pipes. Doubtless, thought I, if this water springs up at a single 
place and for want of exit spreads over the whole field, it is an easy 
matter to collect it through waterworks introduced into the pipes 
and let it run ofi" at a lower spot. But otherwise, if you have seve- 
ral springs to contend with ; if the excess of water after the normal 
saturation of the soil is produced by superabundant rains during 
several years, how, once more, will the numerous little sources pene- 
trate and find their way through the surface of, and into the pipes ? 
I will suppose that the ends of the pipes are only contiguous, that 
at first cracks will admit water, but earth will, in course of time, 
fill up the joints ; in both cases the work will be expensive and use- 
less.'' 



DEFINITION. 3 

Such doubts expressed by a very learned agriculturist, 
prove that much has yet to be said in order to convince 
our agriculturists of the utility of drainage, and to ren- 
der its effects conspicuous to them. On the other hand, 
numberless questions are addressed to us about the man- 
ner of making pipes, the quality of clay, the kind of ma- 
chines, baking or burning, cost, results to be expected, 
and so forth. The work for laying the drains does not ap- 
pear, in general, difficult to comprehend and execute ; the 
numerous writings on the subject scattered through the 
agricultural and other journals, have enlightened the ma- 
jority of cultivators. But many a point relating to the 
execution, remains unexplained; we, therefore, have 
deemed it proper to go over the whole subject without 
neglecting that which practical men and publications have 
heretofore elucidated. 

Notwithstanding the origin of drainage may often have 
been related, a sketch of its history and progress will not 
be out of place here. The importance of drainage is the 
sole point of the subject, which really should not require 
any further discussion ; it Avas prominently brought forward 
by Mr, Martinelli, of Nerac (France), at a county fair, in 
a few words, which we translate from the Journal of 
Practical Agriculture, viz : 

" Look at this flower pot. What is the hole at the bottom for ? j 
ask you, because there is a complete agricultural revolution in that 
hole. It affords a renovation of water by a timely flow. And why 
must water be renovated? Because it gives either life or death : 
life, wlren it merely traverses a layer of earth which retains the fe- 
cundity with which water is pregnant, and beside dissolves nutri- 
ments conveyed to the plant; death, when it remains in the pot, be- 
cause it will soon be corrupted, will cause the roots to become dis- 
eased and prevent admittance to new water." 

The drainage of tillable land is a small hole at the bot- 
tom, just like that of the flower pot. 



4 LAND DRMNAGK. 

HISTORY OF DRAINAGE AIMONG THE ANCIENTS. 

The new system of drainage emphatically consists in 
tlio use of covered causeways ; we, therefore, will devote 
no space nor time to the discussion of open trenches as a 
means of removing superfluous water and rendering lands 
arable, subject to this condition. The idea of redeeming 
from waste and of making available for cultivation the 
surface occupied by gaping ditches, may be traced back to 
the earliest ages. The Romans were acquainted with a 
process of draining lands derived, doubtless, from ante- 
cedent civilization. Nevertheless, among agricultural 
writers. Columella is the first who speaks of underground 
causeways ; he lived in the reigns of Augustus and Tibe- 
rius. Cato, Varro, and Virgil, advocate open trenches 
only. Here is Columella's text;^ 

" When the soil is moist, ditches are to be dug out in order to di-y 
it up and let the water run off. We know of two kinds of ditches : 
those which are hidden und those which are wide and open; as to 
the hidden ditches, one will dig out trenches of three feet in depth, 
which shall be half filled with small pebbles or pure gravel, and then 
the whole will be covered with the earth which was taken out from 
the trench. Should there be neither stones nor gravel, then fascines 
formed of branches tied, together, of the same shape and capacity 
of the trench, may be placed into it so as to fill up the cavity. When 
the fascines have been sunk into the bottom of the canal, they must 
be covered with leaves of cypress, pine, or any other tree, then shall 
be superadded the earth extracted from the trench, and the whole 
will strongly be compressed. At both ends must be placed in the 
form of a buttress (as it is done for small bridges), two large stones 
surmounted with a third one, in order to consolidate the sides of the 
ditch and favor the fall and exit of the water." 

Palladius, who came long after Columella, thus describes 
the underground causeways : ^ 

" When the lands are wet, they will be dried up by digging trenches 

1 Lib. II, cap. 2. 2 Lib. VI, cap. 3. 



DRAINAGE AMONG THE ANCIENTS. O 

everywhere. Every one knows how to make open trenches, but 
here is the way to make hidden trenches: One digs out across the 
field ditches of three feet in depth, which are to be half filled with 
small stones or gravel ; after which they are filled up with the eai-th 
from the digging and leveled. But the ends of those causeways must 
lead in declivity unto an open ditch whither the water will run with- 
out carrying away the earth of the field. Should there be no stones, 
one will lay at the bottom of the ditch fascines, straw, or briars of 
any kind whatever." 

Thus, drainage, by means of underground causeways 
through which the flow of water is secured "by means of 
permeable materials, like stones or branches, is an inven- 
tion that no modern has any right to claim ; though drain- 
age, such as described by Columella ond Palladius, has 
long been used at numerous places in France, England 
endeavored to ascribe to Captain Walter Bligh the inven- 
tion of deep trenches. Walter Bligh's only merit is the 
reproduction of the precepts applied before him, and per- 
fectly elucidated by the elder French writer on agriculture, 
Oliver de Serres. 

Even in Columella's time, the importance was fully ap- 
preciated of making the drains with sloping sides and nar- 
row bottom. From this forward there was a slight step 
only to actual and thorough drainage. There is abundant 
evidence to prove that the ancient Romans used clay pipe 
as conduits for water everywhere where they established 
themselves ; that even in lower Austria, Saxony, and 
other countries, a similar system of conduit by clay pipes 
obtained, evidence of which is yet to be found in some of 
the cultivated fields ; there appears to be presumptive 
evidence, at least, that drainage by clay pipes or tiles was 
a Roman invention. 



6 LAND DKAINAGE. 

UNDERGROUND CAUSEWAYS AMONG THE GREEKS. 

We said that the Romans were acquainted with a mode 
of draining hinds through trenches covered and filled Avith 
stone. We did not derive the origin of it from more an- 
cient civilization, because we do not consider the subter- 
ranean canals built by the Greeks to remove enormous 
reservoirs of water, which might have caused extensive 
floods, as meje agricultural drains. M. Jaubert de Passa, 
in his Researches 07i Irrigation among Ancient Nations^ 
speaks thus : 

"Was the mysterious outlet of the lake Stymphalide toward the 
coast of Argos ''■ the work of man or caprice of nature ? It is known 
that the water of the lake did run into two abysses situated at the ex- 
tremity of the valley; when these openings were obstructed, the water 
covered a space of over 400 stadii, or about thirty miles. The river 
Stymphale, which the inhabitants of Argolida named Erasinus^ was 
not the only one of which the course was partly under ground. The 
Alpheus, after having several times disappeared from the earth's 
surface, plunged into the sea, according to traditions,^ in order to go 
into Sicily, where it mingled its water with the spring of Arethusa. 
The plain of Orchomenes became marshy as soon as the subterranean 
ducts, regular outlet of the water from Mount Trachys, failed to be 
cleansed. The plain of Caphyes was sometimes overflown by the 
water of the Orchomenes. As a permanent protection for the coun- 
try and the city, the magistrates of Caphyes caused the establishment 
of a causeway along the flowing canal, behind which water from 
various sources formed the river below.* 

" The plain of Phenea, next to the others, remained for a long 
time overflown. At a remote, but unknown epoch, an earthquake, 
according to some, a beneficent prince, according to others, opened 
two abysses or zerethra, which let out the water and made the land 
healthy;^ finally, the valley of Artemisium, situate near Mantinea, 
and named Argos, on account of its sterility, became marshy as 

1 Vol. IV, p. 36. 3 Pausanias VIII,' 44, 54. 

2Strabo VI, cap. 3 g 9, and VIII, cap. 9 §4- * Pausanias VIII, p. 23. 
5 Pausanias, VIII, p. 14, 19. 



UNDERGROUND CAUSEAYAYS. 7 

often as water obstructed the gulf which was its outlet. This sub- 
terranean duct extended as far as Genethlium, a city built at the 
head of the lake Dine." * 

Certainly, these immense underground works of the 
Greeks must have had the drainage of extensive districts 
for their object, but they were undertaken as a public 
hygiene, and not to enhance the fertility of arable lands. 
Agricultural drainage has this last as its special object; 
but this can not always be attained without some general 
work for the drainage of a whole valley. 

We read, in Walter Bligh's book, third edition, printed 
in 1652:2 

"As to the drain trench, thou wilt make it deep enough so that it 
may reach at the bottom cold, oozing, stagnant water. Say one 
yard, or four feet, if thou wishest for satisfactory drain. And fur- 
thermore, having come to the layer whereat rests the oozing spring, 
sink further down about the depth of an iron shovel, no matter how 
deep thou art already, if thou wilt drain thy land throughout. . . . But 
as to ordinary trenches, which are often dug out one or two feet, I 
say that it is madness and lost work, and I will spare the reader 
wherewithal." 

These injunctions certainly are pertinent, and may 
serve as a guide even at this day ; but one ought not to 
conclude from them, as some modern writers did, that, 
as no French agricultural author treated the subject as 
a specialty, and with sufficient details, all the merit of 
the introduction of open trenches belongs to England. 
Oliver de Serres, who lived before Walter Bligh, and 
whose Theatre of Agriculture was printed in 1600, gives 
a very complete description of the underground cause- 
ways, strongly recommending the use of them. Not only 
does he consider the single trench, as did Columella, but 

1 Pausanias VIII, p. 7, 20, 21, 25. 

2 " The English Improver Improved, or the Survey of Husbandry Sur- 
veyed." 



» LAND DRAINAGE, 

he goes further; he treats of many together, he is care- 
ful to describe the main ditch as also covered, and every 
precaution to be taken in order to secure effective drains. 
As, Oliver de Serres was altogether neglected in the his- 
tory of drainage, and his well-defined ideas having been 
attributed to divers authors, we will give, in extenso, a 
passage from the book of this great French Avriter on 
agriculture : ^ 

"To discharge noxious water, the usual way is to open ditches, 
especially through plains and low places, these ditches becoming in- 
closures for the land. Let the land then be dug around and give 
the ditches proper Avidth and depth, to fulfill both objects. They 
must be cleansed every second year, some time previous to sowing 
lands, on which shall be cast this detritus from the trenches, to be 
used as so much manure. But, should it happen that the field be 
full of springs, or underground oozing sources, external ditches are 
no longer sufficient ; then will be required another and more pecu- 
liar remedy as will be shown, in order to rid inner land of this in- 
commodiousness. Inasmuch as the evil of too much water exceeds 
in destructiveness, both that of shadow and of stones, to mend the 
former will require greater labor than to correct the latter; of this, 
finally, the profit as a recompense, comes out greater than from any 
other reparation that can be given to the land, so fruitful is that 
which relieves it from water; because thereby not only are wet 
lands improved, but pools and swamps are converted into exquisite 
plow fields. 

"The examples serve us as good masters to do good husbandrv. 
Where is the farmer beholding the beautiful wheat raised on drained 
swamps, that does not desire, in emulation, to imitate such profit- 
able husbandry? The cause of this comes from a superabundance 
of water, which prevented land from being worked for several years; 
at tlie end of which, finding itself reposed, and thereby to have Re- 
quired fertility, returns it admirably and with profit. And how much 
more hope you will have from this, which by the ancient subjection 
to the springs, was never able to produce, which you will find preg- 
nant with fertility ! Beside the income, there is no doubt that from 
noxious water spread here and there, on your land, when collected 

1 Theatre d'AgvicuUurc, Second Lieu, t. 1, p. 97. 



UNDERGROUND CAUSEWAYS. 9 

in one place, you could make a fountain spring according to places, 
so great and with such abundance of water, that it will suffice for 
the irrigation of meadows, which you will make on account of that, 
below the drained pieces, and indeed for erecting mills there, should 
the ground and other circumstances requisite be favorable. 

" The ground you desire to drain must have a declivity, either 
small or great, without which the water could not run off. This be- 
ing presujjposed, a large ditch must be dug from one end to the 
other, always beginning at the lowest spot ; into that trench many 
others, but smaller, may be joined on both sides, in order to dis- 
charge the water flowing from all parts of the ground. By this 
means, each supplying its portion, the large ditch collecting, the 
whole will be discharged. The large trench is, on that account, 
called mother trench, and the whole together, ' hens paw,' from the 
figure of that animal's foot, whose claws otretch in toward its 
trunk. The extent and surface of the land give form to the 
ditches, because it is fit to make them longer and wider in propor- 
tion as your land is extensive and flat, which you drain; and on 
the other hand, they are required shorter and narrower, if it be 
small and sloping; because, Avithin a narrow compass, gene- 
rally, not so much water is collected as in a large one, and as much, 
nay, more of it will pour out of a narrow ditch with great declivity 
than a wide, gently sloping trench. About the dejJth of the ditches, 
it is not thus, /or, in ivhaiever part you dig, tjou must go about four 
feet deep, in order to cut off the source of the springs, ivhich is the 
special aim of this business. According to the nature of the place, 
must the tranches be disposed. 

" Should there be a low vale, with high ground on both sides, the 
mother must be dug in the middle and lower spot, lengthwise, as al- 
ready said, into which must fall the other ditches from both sides. 
But having to drain only one hillyide, in that quarter there will be 
some small ditches running into the mother trench, and disposed as 
will seem fit for the best of the work and premises ; as also the 
length of all trenches is subordinate to the plan which dictates the 
order of them, according to the surface and site. Having the plan, 
reasonable fall and extent, a proper width will also be required for 
the small ditches ; the latter should be three feet, and the mother 
five feet deep ; by means of this guide, your intention will be ful- 
filled. And to avoid any mistake, let there be as many ditches, so 
long, so wide, without fear of excess on this score, that no source 



10 LAND DRAINAGE. 

of spring, or small fountain, be overlooked, in order to drain your 
land well, by the general gathering of its waters. 

^^ Those ditches, large or small, viust be halfjilled with minute stones 
and the other half with the earth previously dug out and leveled at the 
top, so that no trace of it even will appear, for the commodiousness 
of tillage, which should be executed very well, the plow finding 
depth enough of earth before reaching the stones, through which 
water will freely pass and flow out at the spot designed for it, leav- 
ing the surface land free of all noxious moisture and fit to bring forth 
all kinds of cereals. 

"A similar work must be applied to all estates, vineyards, meadows, 
orchards, and others which produce no fruit on account of too much 
moisture. If you have on the spot none but large, flat stones for 
supplying your trenches, before using them you must break them to 
suit this kind of service, and they should be placed into the ditch 
straight (upright) and not flat, fixing them beside so skillfully that 
they will not be too tight to prevent the flow of water. To have this 
business well done, begin right, that is, artistically and with order; 
through ease and without confusion you will succeed very well. It 
will be easy to draw all your ditches, by cautiously observing the 
places through which they are to pass ; then you begin to dig them 
out at the lowest spots, casting the earth all on one side of the trench, 
leaving the other side free, to bring thither easily the stones, which 
must be thrown in immediately, for fear that, by delaying, the trench 
might cave in by effect of the wind, trampling of beasts, or any other 
accident. 

" Thus your undertaking shall be completed at one end, as soon as 
commenced, in prosecuting it until you reach the highest spot of the 
field. In the meanwhile the water will take its course as soon as the 
opening of its way has been performed, which could not take place, 
should you begin the work at the highest spot, for want of issue al- 
lowed to water; even this would disturb the digging by discharging 
into it. You will mind, also, that the issues of water be well man- 
aged, that they do not choke up afterward, because for want of issue 
water might retrograde and render your labor useless. This will be 
obviated by stones and mortar, put up by a master hand, so as to last 
long, especially at the spot where the main or mother trench lets out 
the water. You are finally advised that the extremities and ends of 
your small ditches, at their highest parts, need not to be as wide as 
in low places, not being compelled to collect there so much water as 
below; this, nevertheless, remains at your discretion, because they 



UNDERGROUND CAUSEWAYS. 11 

can not be too wide in any place in order to receive not only water 
springing from the bottom, but also that from the rain above, which 
shall not be overlooked. 

" This work produces several advantages, since at the same time an 
excess of water and stones are removed from the ground, and that 
water is made serviceable for meadows, mills, even for fountains, the 
qualities of it being considered, for which usefulness it is rendered 
commendable ; also, that improvement ought to be prosecuted by all 
husbandmen. Beside, nothing is lost in that performance ; because 
the trenches being filled up to their superficies, all the land is exposed 
and fit for tillage, even to an inch; that can not be said when trenches 
are left open, Avhich occupy much ground, and, in contradistinction 
to the others, are liable to need repairs from time to time. 

" Should stone for replenishing ditches fail on the spot, do not have 
them brought from afar, at great expense, but instead use straw, 
which you may employ in this wise : 

" The rye straw, on account of its strength, can be used, and this 
failing, replace it with v.'heat straw. You will make ^cith it a floor 
ill the ditch, in order, being suspended, to caxise an empty space below 
for the passage of the water, and above this floor you will put two 
feet of earth. The empty space should be one foot high, the thick- 
ness of the floor another foot, and the two of earth will make four 
feet depth of the ditch. These ditches must be only two feet and a 
half wide, narrower by six inches than others, for the subjection of 
straw, for fear of choking up the empty space below, by caving in on 
account of its weight the earth put on the top. The mother trench, 
recipient of Avater, must not be wider than the others, considering 
the difiiculties of the straw; but this may be overcome by using two 
mother trenches, or only one so deep that it will suffice to collect all 
the water directed to it. The straAv ought to be arranged into bun- 
dles one foot thick and two and a half long, tied up even at three 
equidistant places. 

" In order to lay these bundles as they ought be, you will make the 
ditch narrower at the bottom than at the top, not in declivity or slope, 
but perpendicular, contracting unto square at the place whereon the 
floor is to be laid, to rest firm and secure as upon walls. The con- 
traction at each side must be six inches ; thus the lowest place of 
the ditch will be one foot and a half, and two and six inches at the 
Avidest part, which is the top. Should you suspect your ditches and 
drains of being too small, the remedy is not to Aviden them, consider- 
ing the difficulties of the straAv, but it consists in their number; for, 



12 LAND DRAINAGE. 

as already said, you can not have too many of them, and you never 
will remove too much water from a swamp or marshy ground. Thus 
you must be careful to dig a sufficient number of them and so well 
disposed, that they may discharge the ones upon the others by 
branches connecting them, in order to conduct all the water of the 
field into the mother trench and empty it at the proper place. 

" Straw, thus employed, will last a long time ; for it is admitted that, 
l)eing inclosed within the earth and without the effects of air, straw 
remains sound over a hundred years. I am a witness that some 
sound straw was found entire in the midst of an old, ruined house, 
and the wall appeared to be the work of former ages. Therefore, 
use it without scruple, Avith the understanding that if it should rot 
at the end of a hundred years, those who will come then, may change 
it if they have a mind to." 

On the subject of the straw to replenish trenches, as 
indicated by Oliver de Serres, Victor Yvart, in a remark 
added to the edition of the works of th.e illustrious Avriter, 
and published by the Agricultural Society at Paris, A. D. 
1804, says : 

" It might prove safe and cheap, in the above case, to use faggots 
made of small alder tree branches, which keep Avell in water, and 
for want of them, other branches, which, placed at the bottom allow, 
through their interstices, free exit to water, and afford all the advan- 
tages of straw, without its drawbacks." 

From the above important quotation, it follows that the 
invention of underground causeways for draining tillable 
lands can not be claimed by an English author, even a 
Walter Bligh or an Elkington. The latter wasa Warwick- 
shire farmer, gifted with an observing mind and great 
perseverance, who, toward the end of the last century, 
drained wet lands and was so successful as to attract the 
attention of the parliament and to obtain very many 
recompenses. But his method is not much different from 
Oliver de Serres' stone system. Elkington's process does 
not admit of mother trenches, in order to lead the water 
out of the fields and appropriate it for divers uses. 



^ DRAIN PIPES. 13 

There are three manners of disposing of the water : 

1. Water sinks into permeable, inferior layers, through 
a Avell filled M'ith stones. 

2. Should the well require a depth of more than thirteen 
feet, its ofiice is supplied by boring a hole with a rod, until 
it reaches a porous strata. 

3. Water springs up, like in artesian wells, either by 
means of shafts or wells conveniently situated, and then 
removed through discharging pipes. 

This method named Elkington's, consisting in the double 
contrivance of wells and underground ditches combined, 
requires special dispositions, according to the configura- 
tion of the ground ; it combines, also, drains with shafts 
and artesian wells. 



DRAIN PIPES USED IN FRANCE, A. D. 1620. 

The invention of drainage pipes has always been con- 
ceded to England. Should the statement contained in 
the following letter prove to bo beyond controversy, wo 
ought to say, the English have shown the importance of 
using underground pipes to drain the land, but this inven- 
tion is of French origin : 

"Sir: I read in the Journal of Practical Agriculture your essay 
on drainage scarcely begun, and already full of interest ; it foretells 
deep attraction when it treats of its influence on crops, manures, etc. 

"In the conclusions of your chapter on the history of drainage, a 
contrivance known to antiquity, you show three degrees in the 
periods of progress through Avhich it came to us. 

"The. first, its origin, perhaps, was the pi-actice of it among the 
Romans, as related by Columella and Palladius. 

"The second, in which our priority over England is established, 
thanks to Oliver do Sei-res. 

"The third, in which you abandon the whole conquest to the Eng- 
lish, because they substituted tiles and pipes for other materials. 



14 LAND DRAINAGE. 

"The latter period is indeed capital ; heretofore it was darkness; 
now it is a science. The last improvement elevated drainage from 
the rank of an agricultural drudgery to the sphere of industry; 
caused men of genius to cluster around; attracted the attention of 
men of the world and the powerful support of an enlightened, par- 
tial government. 

" This lucky improvement, this starting point, I may say, shall not 
1)6 denied hj me to the English ; it would be in bad taste to claim 
glory for an invention, when we failed to make it fruitful. I will 
only state that the same idea of this improvement was realized in 
1620, about the time when Oliver de Serres published his works. 

" Within the town of Maubeuge, in my own neighborhood, was a 
convent of monks ; the epoch of its erection could easily be ascer- 
tained ; its chapel is still a pure specimen of gothic style. The convent 
did not escape the republic of 179.3, and the aspect and inmates have 
changed, but its wide and splendid garden was respected. Was it 
on account of its reputation ? It is well known that, from immemo- 
rial time, it was renowned for its fertility, the beauty and earliness 
of its fruit and for the friability of its soil. 

" The estate was sold, and last year the premises underwent re- 
pairs : the prolific garden was turned into pleasure ground, park 
with fountains, driving causeways, artificial elevations of ground, 
and so forth. This overturning disclosed the secret of its marvel- 
ous reputation. 

" Two complete and regular pipe drains extended throughout the 
whole garden, at the depth of four feet. 

" One of the drains had all its pipes radiating to a sinking well 
situate in a central position ; the other was made of pipes all paral- 
lel, ending at a collecting pipe which discharged into a cellar. 

" The owner had the kindness to give me two pipes as specimens 
of curiosity; they are about ten inches long and four inches in diame- 
ter; one end expands into a funnel-shape, the other tapers into a 
cone ; they are made of an argilo-silicious composition like most of 
our earthenware, which is very hard and becomes very much glazed 
in burning, thereby becoming unalterable ; all were found well pre- 
served ; they were evidently made by hand and lathe. 

" When was the drain constructed ? No particular data is fiven. 
MSS. left by the monks might solve the question ; at any rate, some 
tombs, placed over the drain in 1620, show it to be anterior; here 



DRAINAGE IN ENGLAND. 15 

then, is an ancient drainage, made with masterly hands three hun- 
dred and forty years ago, which, in its dimensions, system, and ma- 
terials, is much like those of the present day. 

" To vouch for the truthfulness 

^5^ of the facts, it remains for me to 

■^ j ( state that the particulars were given 

to me by Hon. Marchant, senator, 

[Fig. 1. Pipe Drains of 16'20, found at ^ ^. ^ ^ ■, , , ■ 

Maubeiige, France.] owner 01 the estate, and by Ins son- 

in-law, my brother, a distinguished agriculturist, who was present 
when the excavations were made. 

G. Hamoir, Member of the Ag. Soc." 




Having slioAvn, at considerable length, the origin of 
drainage in France, it may be well to devote a few pages 
to the introduction of this improvement into England. 

The first work published on the subject by an English 
author, Capt. Walter Bligh, already referred to. His 
work, the English Improver Improved, or, The Survey/ 
of Husbandry Surveyed, "was published in 1650. The 
principles of drainage advocated by Capt. Bligh, are thus 
expressed by Josiah Parkes, an eminent practical drainer 
in England, in the 7th vol. of the Journal of the Royal 
Agricultural Society: 

" In his instructions for forming the flooding and draining trenches 
of water-meadows, the author says of the latter ; 'And for thy drayn- 
ing trench, it must be made so deep, that it goe to the bottom of the 
cold spewing moyst water, that feeds the flagg and the rush ; for the 
widenesse of it, use thine own liberty, but be sure to make it so 
wide as thou mayest goe to the bottom of it, which must be so low 
as any moysture lyeth, which moysture usually lyeth under the over 
and second swarth of the earth, in some gravel or sand, or else, 
where some greater stones are mixt with clay, under which thou 
must goe half one spade's graft deep at least. Yea, suppose this 
corruption that feeds and nourisheth the rush or flagg, should lie a 
yard or four-foot deepe ; to the bottom of it thou must goe, if ever 
thou wilt drayn it to purpose, or make the utmost advantage of 
cither floating or drayning, without which the water can not have 



''ii^ 



16 LAND DRAINAGE. 

its kindly operation ; for though the water fatten naturally, yet still 
this coldnesse and moysture lies gnawing within, and not being 
taken clean away, it eates out what tiie water fattens ; and so the 
goodnesse of the water is, as it were, riddled, screened, and strained 
out into the land, leaving the richnesse and the leannesse sliding away 
from it.' In another place, he replies to the objectors of floating, 
that it wall breed the rush, the flagg, and mare-blab; 'only make 
thy drayning-trenches deep enough, and not too far off thy floating 
course, and I'le warrant it they drayn away that under-moysture, 
fylth, and venom as aforesaid, that maintains them ; and then be- 
lieve me, or deny Scripture, which 1 hope thou doust not, as Bildad 
said unto Job, ' Can the rush grow without mire, or the flagg with- 
out water?' Job viii, 11. That interrogation plainly showes that 
the rush can not grow, the water being taken from the root; for it is 
not the moystenesse upon the surface of the land, for then every 
shower should increase the rush, but it is that which lyeth at the 
root, which, drayned away at the bottom, leaves it naked and barren 
of relief 

"The author frequently returns to this charge, explaining over and 
over again, the necessity of removing what we call bottom-water, and 
which he well designates as 'filth and venom.' 

" In the course of my operations as a drainer, I have met with, or 
heard of so many instances of swamp-drainage, executed precisely 
according to the plans of this author, and sometimes in a superior 
manner — the conduits being formed of walling stone, at a period 
long antecedent to the memory of the living — ^that I am disposed to 
consider the practice of deep drainage to have originated with Capt. 
Bligh, and to have been preserved by imitators in various parts of 
the country ; since a book, which passed through three editions in 
the time of the Commonwealth, must necessarily have had an ex- 
tensive circulation, and enjoyed a high renown. Several compli- 
mentary autograph verses, written by some imitators and admirers 
of the ingenious Bligh, are bound up with the volume. I find, also, 
not unfrequently, very ancient deep drains in arable fields, and some 
of them still in good condition ; and in a case or two, I have met 
with several ancient drains six feet deep, placed parallel with each 
other, but at so great a distance asunder, as not to have commanded 
a perfect drainage of the intermediate space. The author from 
whom I have so largely quoted, is the earliest known to me, who has 
had the sagacity to distinguish between the transient effect of rain, 



DRAINAGE IN ENGLAND. 17 

and the constant action of stagnant bottom water in maintaining 
land in a wet condition." 

The next important step in the progress of drain- 
age in England, was by Joseph Elkington, an illiterate 
Warwickshire Farmer ; but a man who undoubtedly pos- 
sessed more than ordinary ability, if not absolute genius. 
His discovery and subsequent practice created such a 
sensation throughout England and Scotland, but more es- 
pecially in the agricultural circles, that at the solicitation 
of the Board of Agriculture, Parliament in 1795, voted 
him £1,000, as a reward for his discovery in the drainage 
of land. 

Elkington being incapable of -writing out his discovery 
and system of drainage, so that others might be benefited 
by such a work, the Board of Agriculture appointed a 
Mr. John Johnstone to visit Elkington's principal works, 
and study them carefully, and record it for the benefit of 
others. Mr. Johnstone accordingly studied the Elking- 
ton system of drainage, and wrote a treatise on it. Re- 
cent writers charge Mr. Johnstone with giving, his own 
opinions in many instances, rather than those of Mr. Elk- 
ington. 

He gives the following statement of Elkington's dis- 
covery : 

''In the year 1763, Elkington was left by his father in the posses- 
sion of a farm called Prince-Thorp, in the parish of Stretton-upon- 
Dunsmore, and county of Warwick. The soil of this farm was so 
poor, and, in many places, so extremely wet, that it was the cause 
of rotting several hundreds of his sheep, which first induced him, 
if possible, to drain it. This he begun to do, in 1764, in a field of 
wet clay soil, rendered almost a swamp, or shaJcing bog, by the 
springs which issued from an adjoining bank of gi-avel and sand, 
and overflowed the surface of the ground below. To drain this 
field, which was of considerable extent, he cut a trench about four 
or five feet deep, a little below the upper side of the bog, where the 
wetness began to make its appearance; and, after proceedinir with 
8' 



18 LAND DRAINAGE. 

it in this direction and at this depth, he found it did not reacli the 
principal body of subjacent boater from which the evil arose. On 
pei-ceiving this, he was at a loss how to proceed, when one of his 
servants came to the field with an iron crow, or bar, for the purpose 
of making holes for fixing sheep hurdles in an adjoining part of the 
farm, as represented on the plan. Having a suspicion that his drain 
was not deep enough, and desirous to know what strata lay under it, 
ho took the iron bar, and having forced it down about four feet be- 
low the bottom of the trench, on pulling it out, to his astonishment, 
a great quantity of water burst up through the hole he had thus 
made, and ran along the drain. This led him to the knowledge, that 
wetness may be often produced by water confined farther below the 
surface of the ground, than it was possible for the usual depth of 
drains to reach, and that an avger would be a useful instrument to 
apply in such cases. Thus, chance was the parent of this discovery, 
as she oftens is of other useful arts ; and fortunate it is for society, 
when such accidents happen to those who have sense and judgment 
to avail themselves of hints thus fortuitously given. In this manner 
he soon accomplished the drainage of his whole farm, and rendered 
it so perfectly dry and sound, that none of his flock Avas ever after 
affected with disease. 

"By the success of this experiment, IMr. Elkington's fame, as a 
drainer, was quickly and widely extended; and, after having suc- 
cessfully drained several farms in his neighborhood, he was, at last, 
very generally employed for that purpose, in various parts of the 
kingdom, till about thirty years ago, Avhen the country had the mel- 
ancholy cause to regret his loss. From his long practice and experi- 
ence, he became so successful in the works he undertook, and so 
skillful in judging of the internal strata of the earth, and the nature 
of spi-ings, that, with remarkable precision, he could ascertain where 
to find water, and trace the course of springs that made no appear- 
ance on the surface of the ground. During his practice of more 
than thirty years, he drained in various parts in England, particu- 
larly in the midland counties, many thousand acres of land, which, 
from being originally of little or no value, soon became as useful as 
any in the kingdom, by producing the most valuable kinds of grain, 
and feeding the best and healthiest species of stock. 

"Many have erroneously entertained an idea that Elkington's 
skill lay solely in applying the auger for the tapping of springs, with- 
out attaching any merit to his method of conducting the drains. 
The accidental circumstance above stated, gave him the first notion 



DRAINAGE IN ENGLAND. 19 

of usins; an auger, aud directed his attention to the profession and 
practice of draining, in the course of which he made various useful 
discoveries, as will be afterward explained. With regard to the use 
of the auger, though there is every reason to l)elieve that he was led 
to employ that instrument from the circumstance already stated, and 
did not derive it from any other source of intelligence, yet there 
is no doubt that others might have hit upon the same idea without 
being indebted for it to him. It has happened, that, in attempts to 
discover mines by boring, springs have been tapped, and ground 
thereby drained, either by letting the water down, or by giving it 
vent to the surface ; and that the auger has been likewise used in 
bringing up water in wells, to save the expense of deeper digging; 
but that it had been used in drawing land, before Mr. Elkinyton 
made that discovery, no one has ventured to assert." 

Johnstone sums up this system as follows : 

"Draining, a^ccording to Elkington's principles, depends chiefly 
upon three things : 

" 1. Upon discovering the main spring or source of the evil. 

" 2. Upon taking the subterraneous bearings ; and, 

" 3. By making use of the auger to reach and taj) the springs, 
when the depth of the drain is not sufficient for that purpose. 

" The first thing, therefore, to be observed is, by examining the 
adjoining high grounds, to discover what strata they are composed 
of; and then to ascertain, as nearly as possible, the inclination of 
these strata, and their connection with the ground to be drained, 
and thereby to judge at what place the level of the spring comes 
nearest to where the water can be cut off, and most readily dis- 
charged. The surest way of ascertaining the lay or inclination of 
the different strata, is, by examining the bed of the nearest streams, 
and the edges of the banks that are cut thi-ough by the water, and 
any pits, wells, or quarries that may be in the neighborhood. After 
the 7nain spn'/i^ has been thus discovered, the next thing is to ascer- 
tain a line on the same level, to one or both sides of it, in which the 
drain may be conducted, which is one of the most important parts 
of the operation, and one on which the art of draining in a scientific 
manner essentially depends. 

" Lastly, the use of the auger, which, in many cases, is the sine 
qua non of the business, is to reach and tap the spring when the 
depth of the drain does not reach it; where the level of the outlet 
will not admit of its being cut to a greater depth ; and where the 



20 LAND DRAINAGE. 

expense of such cutting would be great, and the execution of it 
difficult. 

"According to these principles, this sj'stem of draining has been 
attended with extraordinary consequences, not only in laying the 
land dry in the vicinity of the drain, but also springs, Avells, and 
wet ground, at a considerable distance, with which there was no 
apparent connection." 

About the year 1810, it was deemed advisable to change 
the former system of draining. Flat and hollow tiles 
were at first adopted. Tile drainage appears to have been 
put in practice, for the first time, at Netherby, in North- 
umberland, upon the estate of Sir James Graham. "A 
tile and sole, with a few inches of stone, is the ne plus 
ultra of draining :" thus reads the Journal of the SocieAy 
of Agriculture of England, vol. II, p. 293. It seems that 
for a period of thirty years, there appeared no possibility 
of improving on the method invented in 1810. 

But it remained for the agriculturists of the nineteenth 
century to establish a system of drainage in accordance 
with scientific principles — to make it more general in its 
application ; to provide apparatus and machinery for the 
more precise and uniform construction of the drains, as 
well as the tile ; and the entire art has been so much im- 
proved that all previous experiments and systems vanish 
into almost nothingness in comparison. 

The ancient mode of draining, successful as it may have 
been, yet inefficient as it certainly was, subjected those who 
practiced it to many inconveniences, while itself was sub- 
ject to many liabilities from which the modern or English 
system of tile draining is exempt. Not only was that sys- 
tem attended with many inconveniences in construction, 
for want of proper materials, but even when constructed 
was liable to become deranged in a comparatively short 
period of time, and to repair them was attended with not 
only great expenditure, but great inconvenience and labor. 



DRAESTAGE .IN ENGLAND. 21 

Beside, these drains, made of wood, stone, etc., served for 
the single purpose of draining the springs and stagnant 
surface water only, while the modern ones, made of tile, not 
only serve this same purpose, but also accomplish some 
other advantageous results. 

It soon became manifest that these wooden and stone 
drains were sadly deficient in permanency, and great pains 
were taken to substitute something better. It was some- 
what of an improvement when the plan was adopted of dig- 
ging a canal or ditch, and covering the bottom with brick, 
and then placing on these brick, to the thickness of a foot 
or more, large-sized pebbles or brickbats. These drains 
proved more durable and less liable to become deranged 
than the previous ones, and while they drained a given 
quantity of water in less time, they accomplished that one 
object only. 

This system was in turn abandoned, and a wooden pipe, 
or boards forming a kind of covered triangular trough, was 
substituted. When these troughs were fitted in the bot- 
tom of the drain, the drain itself was then closed with turf, 
sod or earth. J3ut this system was found to be very ex- 
pensive, and accomplished the one object only, viz : drain- 
ing the surface water and the spring water, and this very 
imperfectly. 

Another great error was committed with this system, 
namely, the ditches were made so shallow that even when 
plowing with their shallow plows, the conduit was dis- 
turbed. The result was that when the Avinters were se- 
vere, the drains were frozen up, and were, in consequence, 
not only worthless, but an actual damage, because the soil 
underwent all the phenomena that it does in winter — kill- 
ing wheat; and it was late in the spring before they were 
in a serviceable condition. Hence, at the season when 
tlicv should have been of the utmost importance, they 



22 LAND DRAINAGE, 

"were entirely useless, because at that season there is not 
only the most water in the soil, but it is also a period when 
the water produces the most injurious results to the grow- 
ing plants. 

Mr. Baxter, an Englishman, was perhaps the first one 
to indicate the disadvantages arising from shallow drains. 
He describes the results as follows : 

"In the year 1819, I drained an eight acre field according to the 
old system. The pipes were laid from twenty to twenty-four inches 
beneath the surface, and twenty-eight feet apart. J soon became 
convinced that very little benefit would accrue from this system. 
The crops were no better than before the piece was drained — the 
tilth no better or easier, in spite of the best manures which I could 
procure. These drains were filled with stone, and covered with turf; 
but, being compelled to bring the stone some distance, it made the 
drains very expensive. In 1832, I redrained the same field accord- 
ing to the new system; that is, I made the drains three feet deep at 
parallel distances of thirty-two feet. The advantages of this system 
were at once apparent. The soil was sufficiently dry for purposes of 
cultivation much sooner than that not underdrained ; the water fur- 
rows disappeared, and with them, the expense of keeping the field 
clean after seeding. No more manures of any kind were applied, 
and yet the product was fully one third more than previous to under- 
draining. Since I have commenced deep or thorough draining, all 
my crops yield fully one third more. By deep draining, the water 
can at once flow unhindered from the field, and the soil is conse- 
quently in a condition to be worked at a much earlier date after a 
rain than that which is not underdrained. A given underdrained field 
Avill sustain more cattle in a good condition than one which has not 
been so treated. Then, the crop, too, will ripen earlier, and the la- 
bor, in clay soil, is lightened fully one fifth for cattle or horses, 
Avhilc the soil itself is rendered in much better condition. The cli- 
mate even is improved everywhere where deep draining is practiced. 
It is the most efi"ective means of radically removing miasma that cau 
be introduced." 

The great advantages consequent upon deep draining 
were then made manifest by actual experiment twenty-five 
years ago. About the same time, another very important 



DRAINAGE IN ENGLAND. 23 

invention "was introduced, namely, the clay pipe, or drain- 
ing tiles. The credit of this most important discovery is 
due to Mr, Smith, of Deanston, in Scotland. A distin- 
guished mechanic and director of a cotton factory, Mr. 
Smith, wondering at the infertility of a piece of ground 
contiguous to that factory, after a minute observation, 
came to the conclusion that an excess of moisture was the 
cause of it, and without any knowledge of what had either 
been written or done by former agriculturists, it occurred 
to him that covered drains would answer an excellent pur- 
pose to drain tillable lands. Ilis success was great, and 
much talked of in the neighborhood. In 1838, he pub- 
lished a pamphlet under the title of Smith's Remarks on 
tJiorougJi Draining ; and although he was not the first in- 
ventor of this method, he rendered to England and Scot- 
land the service of introducing his method of drainage, 
which greatly increased the fertility of British lands. We 
must acknowledge, in honor to that country, that land 
owners and the government acted in this case with more 
promptitude than is usual with them. Even Sir Robert 
Peel, in 1840, had part of his estate at Drayton, Stafford- 
shire, drained by Mr. Smith. 

This new art of draining swept like a wildfire over 
Great Britain, and drainage soon became more and more 
general in England and Scotland. The great importance 
of this system of draining was not only acknowledged and 
advocated by the agriculturists of England, but the gov- 
ernment gave the most substantial testimonials of its con- 
fidence in the system as an augmenter of products. A 
fund of two million pounds sterling, equal to ten millions 
of dollars, was appropriated as a fund to be loaned to 
farmers, to be expended in drainage — six and a half per 
cent, of the loan to be annually refunded, but at the expi- 



24 LAND DRAINAGE. 

ration of twenty-two years, the entire fund to be extin- 
guished. 

Not only landlords drained their lands, but the tenants 
even, when their lease expired at the end of six years, 
drained the land they cultivated with advantage and profit 
to themselves. In consequence of the great advantages 
arising from drainage in England, a law Avas enacted reg- 
ulating the amount to be allowed tenants for draining the 
landlord's farm, also, a law fixing the increased value of 
farms which are underdrained, for purposes of hypotheca- 
tion, etc. 

Tiles were at first made by hand. English inventive 
genius was not long in forwarding this industry. As drain- 
age spread, machines came in demand to supersede manual 
labor. The first one, turning out flat and hollow tiles at 
once, was made by Irving, during the year 1842.^ Imme- 
diately after this, the Marquis of Tweeddale, Mr. Ransome, 
then Mr. Etheredge, invented other machinery for the 
same purpose.^ But, to manufacture subterranean pipes 
in two pieces was evidently useless complication. Mr. 
John Read was then happily inspired with the idea of sub- 
stituting cylindrical pipes for tiles. Therefore, this man- 
ufacturer added to the ancient process of drainage, the 
last improvement which it has attained. The first ma- 
chinery of this kind was exhibited in 1843, at the Derby 
Agricultural Fair. It won premiums of silver medals, and 
was the object of minute and encomiastic descriptions by 
Josiah Parkes, who was struck with its importance. Since 
that time, every year ushers in ncAV improvements on its 
construction. 

Elkington's attention was specially directed to springs, 
and the merit of his system consisted of relieving the 

1 Journal of the Royal Society of Agriculture, Vol. IV, p. 370 (1843). 

2 Journal of the Royal Society of Agriculture, Vol. Ill, p. 398. 



PRAINAGE IN ENGLAND. 25 

arable soil from tlie effects of water issuing from below up- 
ward. Now, it is well known that, in many places as 
much injury is clone to crops by the retention of rain water 
in the soil as from springs. In cases where the soil re- 
tained the rains, fields could not be drained by an auger 
hole and a ditch or two. 

Smith, of Deanston's system consisted in cutting paral- 
lel drains at regular intervals over the entire field, without 
regard to springs or other sources of subterranean moist- 
ure. His characteristic views were, in brief, as follows : 

" 1. Frequent drains at intervals of from ten to twenty-four feet. 

" 2. Shallow depth — not exceeding thirty inches — designed for 
the single purpose of freeing that depth of soil from stagnant and 
injurious water. 

"3. '■Parallel drains^ at regular distances^ carried throughout the 
whole field, without reference to the wet and dry appearance of por- 
tions of the field,' in order ' to provide frequent opportunities for the 
water rising from below and falling on the surface, to pass freely 
and completely off' 

"4. Direction of the minor drains 'down the steep,' and that of 
the mains along the bottom of the chief hollow — tributary mains be- 
ing provided for the lesser hollows. The reason assigned for the 
minor drains following the line of steepest descent, was, that ' the 
stratification generally lies in sheets, at an angle to the surface.' 

" 5. As to material — Stones preferred to tiles and pipes." 

From 1833 to 1854, several systems of drainage were 
advocated throughout Great Britain. All, however, agreed 
that " tile " was the best material for a conduit for the 
water; but these systems diff'ered from each other in the 
distance between as well as the depth of the drains. The 
merit of each of these systems will be discussed in the 
practical portion of this treatise. 

Drainage was readily introduced into Belgium and Ger- 
many, where it produced as happy results as in England. 
The governments of these respective countries cheerfully 
extented, to the system all the encouragement which couLl 

4 



26 LAND DRAINAGE, 

reasonably be expected. To such an extent did these 
governments manifest their appreciation of the system, 
that they actually purchased tile machines, manufactured 
tile, and established depots for the sale of them at low 
rates, so as to place them within the reach of almost all 
tenants and landholders. The impulse thus given by 
government itself soon produced the happiest results. 
Experiments conducted here and there, at the instance of 
the government, convinced even the most skeptical of the 
great advantages to be derived from underdraining ; the 
praises of the system found an echo in every nook and 
corner of the country ; and nothing ever was so universally 
practiced in Germany in so short a time from the period 
of its first introduction as thorough draining. 



DRAINAGE IN FRANCE. 

From returns gathered about the middle of 1856, it ap- 
pears that there were then about 80,000 English acres of 
thorough-drained land, and 396 tile works in France. 
The money expended in draining, from 1850, when this 
improvement was begun in France, up to the summer of 
1856, accordingly amounts to $8,000,000; the expense of 
draining being about $20 per acre. 

During the draining season (autumn) of 1856, up to 
January 1, 1857, no less than 85,000 acres were drained. 

Of these 165,000 acres, only 45,000 acres were drained 
by care or assistance of the government ; the remainder 
is the work of private enterprise. When will American 
farmers become convinced that thorough draining is one 
of the most important aids to agriculture ! 



DRAINAGE IN THE UNITED STATES. 27 

DRxilNAGE IN THE UNITED STATES. 

The introduction of tile drainage in the United States 
may be given in a very few words. The following account, 
prepared by a correspondent of the New York Tribune, 
and corrected and revised by the editor of the Country 
Gentleman, is perhaps the best account that has yet been 
written on the subject. It is true, we might state, that 
" Mr. John Johnston, of Geneva, N. Y., introduced tile 
draining on his farm in 1835 ; that, in 1848, John Dela- 
field of Seneca county, N. Y., introduced the first tile 
machine (Scragg's patent, imported from England) ;" and 
with this passing notice proceed to the next chapter. 
But those for whom this treatise is written will naturally 
inquire, " What induced him to drain? Where did he ob- 
tain tile ? How much and in what manner did he drain ? 
What did it cost? Did it pat/?" and a host of other 
questions. It will, therefore, be satisfactory, even at the 
expense of some space, to present a detailed statement of 
all the circumstances surrounding and attending his 
efforts. 

JOHN Johnston's system of drainage. 

Mr. John Johnson, near Geneva, N. Y., at one time 
esteemed a fanatic by his neighbors, has come of late 
years to be generally known as " the father of tile drain- 
age in America." After thirty years of precept and twent}^- 
two of example, he has the satisfaction of seeing his favor- 
ite theory fully accepted, and, to some extent, practically 
applied throughout the country. Not without labor, how- 
ever, nor without much skepticism, ridicule and contro- 
versy has this end been attained ; and if, now that his 
head is whitened and his course all but run, he finds him- 
self respected, and appealed to by persons in every state 
of the Union, ho does not forget that it has been by much 



28 LAND DRAINAGE. 

tribulation that he has "worked out this exceeding great 
weight of glory. Mr. Johnston is a Scotchman, who came 
to this country thirty-nine years ago, and purchased the 
farm he now occupies, on the easterly shore of Seneca 
lake, a short distance from Geneva. With the pertinacity 
of his nation, he staid where he first settled, through ill 
fortune and prosperity, wisely concluding that, by always 
bettering his farm', he would better himself, and make 
more money in the long run than he could by shifting un- 
easily from place to place in search of sudden wealth. He 
was poor enough at the commencement ; but what did that 
matter to a frugal, industrious man, willing to live within 
his means, and work hard to increase them ? And so, 
with unflagging zeal, he has gone on from that day to 
this. 

HIS FARM. 

His first purchase was 112 acres of land, well situated, 
but said to be the poorest in the county. He knew better 
than that, however, for although the previous tenant had 
all but starved upon it, and the neighbors told him such 
would be his own fate, he had seen poorer land forced to 
yield large crops in the old country, and so he concluded 
to try the chances for life or death. The soil was a heavy 
gravelly clay, with a tenacious clay subsoil, a perfectly 
tight reservoir for water, cold, hard-baked, and cropped 
down to about the last gasp. The magician commenced his 
work. He found in the barn-yard a great pile of manure, 
the accumulations of years, Avell rotted, black as ink, and 
" mellow as an ash-heap." This he put on as much land 
as possible, at the rate of twenty-five loads to the acre, 
plowed it in deeply, sowed his grain, cleaned out the weeds 
as well as he could, and the land on which he was to starve 
gave him about forty bushels of Avheat per acre. The re- 
sult was, as usual, attributed to luck, and anything but 



Johnston's system, 29 

the real cause. To turn over such deep furrows was sheer 
folly, and such heavy dressings of manure would not fail 
to destroy the seed. But it didn't; and let our farmers 
remember that it never will ; and if they wish to get rich, 
let them cut out this article, read it often, and follow the 
example of our fanatical Scotch friend. 

This system of deep plowing and heavy manuring 
wrought its result in due time. Paying off his debt, put- 
ting up buildings, and purchasing stock each year, to fat- 
ten and sell, Mr. Johnston after seventeen years of hard 
work at last found himself ready to incur a new debt, and 
to commence laying tile drains. Of the benefits to be 
derived from drainage he had long been aware ; for he 
recollected that when he was only ten years of age, his 
grandfather, a thrifty farmer in Scotland, seeing the good 
effects of some stone drains laid down upon his place, had 
said : " Varily, I believe the whole airth should be 
drained." This quaint saying, which needs but little 
qualification, made a lasting impression on the mind of 
the boy, that was to be tested by the man, to the perma- 
nent benefit of this country. 

Without sufiicient means himself, he applied for a loan 
to the Bank of Geneva, and the president, knowing his 
integrity and industry, granted his request. In 1835 tiles 
were not made in this country, so Mr. Johnston imported 
some as samples, and a quantity of the " horse-shoe " 
pattern were made in 1838, at Waterloo. There was no 
machine for producing them, so they were made by hand 
and molded over a stick. This slow and laborious process 
brought their cost to $24 per thousand, but even at this 
enormous price, Mr. Johnston determined to use them. 
His ditches were opened and his tile laid, and then what 
sport for the neighbors ! They poked fun at the deluded 
man; they came and counseled with him, all the while 



30 LAND DRAINAGE. 

watching his bright eye and intelligent face for signs of 
lunacy; they went by wagging their heads and saying, 
"Aha!" and one and all said he was a consummate ass to 
put crockery under ground and bury his money so fruit- 
lessly. Poor Mr. Johnston ! he says he really felt ashamed 
of himself for trying the new plan, and when people riding 
past the house would shout at him, and make contemptuous 
signs, he was sore-hearted and almost ready to conceal his 
crime. But what was the result ? Why this : that land 
which was previously sodden with water, and utterly 
unfruitful, in one season was covered with luxuriant crops, 
and the jeering skeptics were utterly confounded; that in 
two crops all his outlay for tiles and labor was repaid, and 
he could start afresh and drain more land; that the profit 
was so manifest as to induce him to extend his operations 
each succeeding year, and so go on until 1856, when his 
labor was finished, after having laid 210,000 tiles, or more 
than fifty miles in length ! And the fame of this individual 
success going forth, one and another duplicated his ex- 
periment, and were rewarded according to their deserts. 
It was not long after the manufacture of the first lot of 
tiles that a machine was contrived which would make quite 
as well, and faster ; and by its aid they were aiforded at 
quite as low a price as after an English machine was im- 
ported. The horse-shoe tile has been used by Mr. John- 
ston almost exclusively, for the reason that they were the 
only kind to be procured at first, and on his hard subsoil, 
finding them to do as well as he could wish, he has not 
cared to make new experiments. He has drains that have 
been in function for more than twenty years without need- 
ing repair, and are apparently as efficient now as they 
were when first laid. In soft land, pipe or sole tiles 
would be preferable, or if horse-shoe were used they 
should be placed on strips of rough board, to prevent 



Johnston's system. 31 

their sinking into the trench bottom, or being thrown out 
of the regular fall by being undermined by the running 
water. He has not used the plow for opening his trenches, 
for the reason that all his work has been let out by con- 
tract, and the men have opened them by the spade; charg- 
ing from twelve and a half to fifteen cents per rod for 
opening and making the bottom ready for the tile. The 
laying and filling was done by the owner. 

HIS PRACTICE. 

His ditches are dug only two and a half feet deep, and 
thirteen inches wide at the top, sloping inward to the 
bottom, w^here they are just wide enough to take the tile. 
One main drain, in Avhich are placed two four-inch tiles 
set eight inches apart, with an arch piece of tile having a 
nine-inch span set on top of them, was dug three and a 
half and four feet deep, and this serves as a conduit for 
the water from a large system of laterals. Drains should 
never be left open in winter, for the dirt dislodged by 
frequent frosts so fills the bottom that it will cost five or 
six cents per rod to clear them ; and, moreover, the banks 
often become so crumbled away that the ditch can not be 
straddled by a team of horses, and thus most of the fill- 
ing must be done by hand. Mr. Johnston in draining a 
field commences at the foot of each ditch and works up to 
the head. He opens his mains first, and then the lateral 
or small drains, but he lays the tiles in the laterals and 
fills them completely before laying the pipe in the mains. 
The object of this is to prevent the accumulation of sedi- 
ment in the mains, which would naturally be washed from 
the laterals on their first being laid. By commencing at 
the foot of each ditch and working upward, he can always 
get and preserve the regular fall, which may be dictated 
by the features of his field, more easily than by Avorking 



32 LAND DRAINAGE. 

toward the outlet. A little practice teaches the ditchers 
how to preserve the grade almost as Avell as if gauges 
were employed ; but before laying the tiles, the instrument 
is applied to test the bottom thoroughly.^ The necessity 
of this precaution will be apparent to any one who reflects 
that if a tile or two in the course of a ditch be set much 
too high or too low at either end, the water quickly forms 
a basin beneath and around, sediment is washed into the 
adjoining pipe, and ultimately even the whole bore is filled 
and the drain stopped. When this happens it will be in- 
dicated after a time by the water appearing at the surface 
of the ground above the spot — drawn upward by capillary 
attraction. In such a case the ditch must be reopened 
and the tile relaid. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Mr. Johnston says tile-draining pays for itself in two 
seasons, sometimes in one. Thus, in 1847, he bought a 
piece of ten acres to get an outlet for his drains. It was 
a perfect quagmire, covered with coarse aquatic grasses, 
and so unfruitful that it would not give back the seed sown 
upon it. In 1848 a crop of corn was taken from it, which 
was measured and found to be eigldy bushels per acre, and 
as, because of the Irish famine, corn was worth |1 per 
bushel that year, this crop paid not only all the expense 
of drainage, but the first cost of the land as well. 

Another piece of twenty acres, adjoining the farm of 
the late John Delafield, was wet and would never bring 
more than ten bushels of corn per acre. This was drained 
at a great cost, nearly $30 per acre. The first crop after 
this Avas 83 bushels and some odd pounds per acre. It 
was weighed and measured by Mr. Delafield, and the 
county society awarded a premium to Mr. Johnston. 

1 1 never used a leveling instrument. I always had water, which is the 
best instrument. — J. J. 



Johnston's system, 33 

Eight acres and some rods of this land, at one side, aver- 
aged 94 bushels, or the trifling increase of 84 bushels per 
acre over what it would bear before those insignificant 
clay tiles were buried in the ground. But this increase 
of crop is not the only profit of drainage; for Mr. John- 
ston says that on drained land one half the usual quantity 
of manure suffices to give maximum crops. It is not diffi- 
cult to find a reason for this. When the soil is sodden 
Avith water, air can not enter to any extent, and hence 
oxygen can not eat off" the surfaces of soil-particles and 
prepared food for plants; thus the plant must in great 
measure depend on the manure for sustenance, and of 
course the more this is the case, the more manure must 
be applied to get good crops. This is one reason, but 
there are others which we might adduce if one good one 
were not sufficient. 

Mr. Johnston says he never made money until he 
drained, and so convinced is he of the benefits accruing 
from the practice, that he would not hesitate — as he did 
not when the result was much more uncertain than at 
present — to borrow money to drain. Drains well laid, 
endure, but unless a farmer intends doing the job well he 
had best leave it alone and grow poor, and move out West, 
and all that sort of thing. Occupiers of apparently dry 
land are not safe in concluding that they need not go to 
the expense of draining, for if they will but dig a three- 
foot ditch in even the driest soil, water will be found in 
the bottom at the end of eight hours, and if it does come, 
then draining will pay for itself speedily. For instance : 
Mr. Johnston had a lot of thirteen acres on the shore of 
the lake, where the bank at the foot of the lot was per- 
pendicular to the depth of thirty or forty feet. He sup- 
posed from this fact, and because the surface seemed very 
dry, that he had no need to drain it. But somehow he 



34 LAND DRAINAGE. 

lost his crops continually, and as he had put them in as 
well as he knew how, he naturally concluded that he must 
lay some tile. So he engaged an Irishman to open a 
ditch, with a proviso that if water should come into it in 
eight hours, he would drain the entire piece. The top 
soil was so hard and dry as to need an application of the 
pick, but at the depth of a foot it was found to be so wet 
and soft that a spade could easily be sunk to the entire 
depth of ten inches with little force. The ditches were 
made, and in less than the specified time a brave lot of 
water flowed in. The piece was thoroughly drained, and 
the result was an immense crop of corn. The field has 
regularly borne 60 or 70 bushels since. Corn was planted 
for a first crop in this and the preceding instances, be- 
cause a paying crop is obtained in one year, whereas if 
wheat were sown it would be necessary to wait two sea- 
sons. He always drains when the field is in grass, if pos- 
sible, for the ditches can be made easily ; and Spring is 
chosen that the labor may not be interfered with by frosts. 
To show how necessary it is to avoid planting trees 
over drains, we quote a case in point. In a lot adjoining 
his house are four large elms which are marked to be felled, 
and for the reason that the lot was formerly so wet that 
a pond of water stood upon it in winter, and throughout 
the season the children skated and slid upon it. It was 
drained, and all went well for a time : but after seven 
years Mr. Johnston found his drains did not discharge 
properly, and that in certain places the water came to the 
surface, so as to destroy or greatly lessen the crop above 
them. He could not account for the circumstances until 
he dug down to the drain at each of these spots, when, to 
his surprise, he found the tile [two four-inch tile with a 
semi-circle of nine inch set on top of them,] completely 
choked with fibrous roots of the elms. 



Johnston's system. 35 

Mr. Johnston says lie never saw one hundred acres in 
any one farm, but a portion of it would pay for draining. 
Mr. Johnston is no rich man who has carried a favorite 
hobby without regard to cost or profit. He is a hard- 
working Scotch farmer, who commenced a poor man, bor- 
rowed money to drain his land, has gradually extended 
his operations, and is now reaping the benefits, in having 
crops of forty bushels of wheat to the acre. He is a gray- 
haired Nestor, who, after accumulating the experience of 
a long life, is now at sixty-eight years of age, written to 
by strangers in every state of the Union for information, 
not only in drainage matters, but all cognate branches of 
farming. He sits in his homestead a veritable Humboldt 
in his way, dispensing information cheerfully through our 
agricultural papers and to private correspondents, of 
whom he has recorded 16-i who applied to him last year. 
His opinions are, therefore, worth more than those of a 
host of theoretical men, who write without practice. He 
says that the retrogression of our agriculture in the older 
states, is to be accounted for in ouc lack of drainage, poor 
feeding of stock, which results in giving a small quantity 
of poor manure, and in not keeping enough to make ma- 
nure. He applies twenty-five loads of manure to the acre 
at the beginning of a rotation, and this lasts throughout 
the course. He learned from his grandfather that no 
farmer could afi"ord to keep any animal that did not im- 
prove on his hands, and that as soon as it was in good 
marketable condition it should be sold and replaced by 
another. This theory he has always carried out, and as 
a natural consequence, has always got higher prices for 
his beef stock, and a ready market in the dullest of times. 

Although his farm is mainly devoted to wheat, yet a 
considerable area of meadow and some pasture has been 
retained. He now owns about 300 acres of land. The 



36 LAND DRAINAGE. 

yield of wlieat has been 40 bushels this year, and in for- 
mer seasons, when his neighbors were reaping 8, 10, or 
15 bushels, he has had 30 and 40. We are informed by him 
that there has been no such crop as the present since 1845, 
either in yield or quality ; and the absence of weevil is 
remarkable. A variety of white wheat from Missouri, 
sown more thinly than usual, has yielded 31 bushels to 
something less than one bushel of seed sown. It headed 
out a fortnight earlier than the Soule's, but ripened later 
— probably b'ecause thinly sown. Mr. Johnston thinks 
we have been sowing too thickly for fifteen years past 
upon rich land, and there can be no question but that he 
is right. Still, it is better to take a medium course be- 
tween thick and thin sowing, and thus avoid, on the one 
hand, rust, overcrowding, and waste of seed, and on the 
other, placing an entire crop at the mercy of insects which 
may attack it. 

SALT FOR RUST. 

As a sure preventive to rust, to give stiifness to the 
straw, and to expedite- the ripening of wheat, by four or 
five days, Mr. Johnston sows five bushels of salt to the 
acre, broadcast, after seeding. He thinks, moreover, that 
for each of the five bushels of salt almost an extra bushel 
of wheat may be expected. 

SIZE OF TILES FOR MAINS AND LATERALS. 

A too common error with improving farmers is that of 
using too small tile for main drains, and too large for lat- 
erals. Those accustomed to the roomy conduits of ordi- 
nary stone drains, suppose that nothing less than a three 
inch bore will conduct the drainage from the surface into 
the mains ; and curiously enough the same persons, un- 
mindful of the large area drained by each system of late- 
rals, err in using mains but little larger in bore than the 



Johnston's system. 37 

latter. If any are willing to look into the results of the 
drainage on our Central Park, the most stupendous work 
of the kind in the country, and one of the best conducted, 
they will find that the one and a half inch and two inch 
tiles there used for laterals do not run full even after the 
most violent and protracted rains, and yet from a single 
" system" of twelve acres, the discharge after a recent 
rain was at the rate of 3,000 gallons per hour. This error 
of using too large tile Mr. Johnston fell into, and now 
that he has learned better after a twenty years' experi- 
ence, he cautions his brother farmers against using larger 
than two inch tile for laterals. For mains each farmer 
must provide as the quantity of water to be conducted is 
greater or less. In many cases Mr. Johnston has used 
two rows of four inch, in others six inch, and in one, semi- 
circles of eleven inches, one as top and one as bottom, 
making a pipe nine inches bore to discharge water. At 
first he had many to take up and replace Avith large pipe 
to secure a complete discharge. Main drains he makes 
six to eight inches deeper than those emptying into them 
— not with an abrupt shoulder, but leveled up, so that the 
descent may take place gradually in the length of two 
tiles — 29 inches — and always giving the laterals a slight 
sidewise direction at the end, so that their water will be 
discharged down stream into the mains. 

Another error he at first fell into was, in having too 
many drains on lowlands, and not enough on the uplands ; 
thus seeking to carry off the effect, while the cause — the 
outcropping springs on the hillside — remained untouched. 
Where the source of the water is most abundant, the 
means for removing it should most abundantly be furn- 
ished. Rain water falls on hills, sinks to an impervious 
stratum, along which it runs until it either finds a porous 
section through which it can fall to a lower level, or not 



38 LAND DRAINAGE. 

finding such, continues on the hard bottom of the side of 
the hill, where it crops out in the form of a spring. If 
this spring water is suffered to run down hill, it Avashes 
the hillside more or less, and coming to the lowland, sinks 
as far as it may into the soil, makes it sodden, and pro- 
duces bad effects. To drain effectually, then, we must 
cut off the supply above, and fewer drains will be neces- 
sary below. Here is the whole secret of the thing, and 
here we see why so much money is spent to so little pur- 
pose by those who think that they should only drain wet 
lowland. Appearances are deceitful, and we should not 
suppose that a seemingly dry upland is really dry. 

Tile works have been established at many places in New 
York state, in several places in Massachusetts, in twelve 
or fifteen counties in Ohio. Some five or six different 
tile machines are in active operation at Cleveland, and are 
unable to supply the demand ; in fact so far as demand is 
concerned, the same may be said of every place at which 
tile are made in Ohio. Michigan, Indiana, Maryland and 
several other states have tile Avorks. 

Considerable draining has been done in the north-west 
part of Ohio, in that region more familiarly known as the 
Black Sivanip — a peculiar formation extending over sev- 
eral counties — by means of open ditches. Brush, wood and 
stone drains are not unknoAvn in Ohio ; and within a few 
years past upward of four hundred miles of underdrain- 
ing have been done in Union, Clark, Madison, Fayette, 
Highland and Clinton counties, by means of the so-called 
moleploiv — a detailed description of this machine will be 
found in an appropriate portion of this work. 



PART I . 

♦ 

THEORY OF DRAINAGE. 



INTRODUCTION 

The chief object of drainage is to liberate the super- 
fluous moisture in springy land, or such lands as have an 
impervious strata near the surface of the soil — the carry- 
ing away of the water which accumulates on the surface, 
from rains, snows, or freshets, is a secondary object only 
of thorough drainage. Where there are springs, there is 
a continued tendency of the water to force through the 
superincumbent strata, so as to rise and spread over the 
surface — such land must, even in times of drought, con- 
tain more than a proper amount of moisture. 

Where there is an impervious subsoil, it is there where 
subterranean waters accumulate and remain a given 
period, and then, perhaps, disappear. As a general thing, 
this ground water sinks the deepest, late in the summer; 
in autumn it begins to rise, and in winter and spring it 
attains its maximum hight. Now, when the Avinter and 
spring waters, from rains and snows, from the surface, 
find their ways down to the waters retained, and resting 
on the subsoil, then the entire soil becomes too thoroughly 
saturated with moisture to admit of tillage operations. 
Winter grains will not succeed at all in such a soil, and 
summer crops are at best very precai'ious. The roots of 
winter plants, in quest of nourishment, penetrate to the 
subsoil, and finding a superabundance of water there, 
become dropsical, and, consequently, perish ; but if the 

(;!9) 



40 LAND DRAINAGE. 

roots can possibly find their way into a drier portion of 
the soil, even by returning toward the surface (they not un- 
frequently do so), yet even then they become diseased, and 
the plant becomes unthrifty and yields but a small pro- 
duct ; for, according to the natural tendency, every plant 
pushes its roots downward, and if it does not succeed, it 
is prevented only by the stony or watery condition of 
the subsoil. But even when the water is withdrawn from 
the surface of the field, there is still but little to be hoped 
for in regard to cultivated plants; for the soil, previously 
softened, now hardened by the influence of the sun's rays 
and air, does not permit the requisite circulation of air, 
and prevents the extension of the roots. A very natural 
consequence is, that the plants become diseased and yield 
but little. 

The same condition of things exists also with respect 
to summer crops upon Avet grounds. Late sowing, alone, 
can succeed ; the water-hardened soil is very difficult to 
work, and, therefore, affords a very incompetent nidus or 
bed for the growth of plants. Consequently, plants suc- 
ceed badly, under all these circumstances ; an entire fail- 
ure of the crop, indeed, may occur, if a sudden violent 
rain unites its influence with the rising ground water. 

Now a rational agriculture requires that the spring 
and ground water be removed ; for, however necessary 
moisture in th« soil may be for the successful growth of 
the plants, yet, as Ave have experienced, an excessive 
moisture produces the opposite eff"ect. An excess of 
moisture in the soil, is recognized by certain water plants, 
such as bent-grass, reeds, shave-grass,moss,ranunculac8e, 
etc., groATing, and gradually croAvding out useful plants. 
The color and condition of the plants themselves, also 
indicate the superabundance of moisture in the soil. 
They are generally coarse and reddish, Arhen their plants 



THEOKY OF DRAINAGE. 41 

vegetate in excessive moisture. The standing of rain or 
snov/ water upon the surface, is also evidence of a super- 
abundance of moisture, or if, afterward, rents or cracks 
appear, or a crust of ice form in the furrows at the slight- 
est frost. Finally, the appearance of the soil at certain 
seasons, shows that it suffers on account of too much 
water. If, for example, the spring winds have dried the 
surface of the ground, so that one would think all the 
moisture gone, and dark spots present themselves upon 
the surface, this shows that much water stands there. 



We will now proceed to give a chapter on soils gene- 
rally, and their properties, then to state how , drainage 
operates, and also discuss the advantages of underdrain- 
ing by demonstrating — so far as theory {7iot hypothesis), in 
its proper sense, is susceptible of demonstration — that 
drainage, 

I. Removes stagnant waters from the surface. 

II. Removes surplus water from under the surface. 

III. Lengthens the seasons. 

IV. Deepens the soil. 

V. Warms the under soil. 

VI. Equalizes the temperature of the soil during the 
season of growth. 

VII. Carries down soluble substances to the roots of 
plants. 

VIII. Prevents " freezing out," or " heaving out." 

IX. Prevents injury from drought. 

X. Improves the quality and quantity of the crops. 

XI. Increases the effect of manures. 

XII. Prevents rust in wheat and rot in potatoes. 



CHAPTER I. 



PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 

In a work of this character, it may not be necessary 
to describe the chemical composition of soils, although 
very proper to state what properties are desirable 
for remunerative cultivation. It not unfrequently hap- 
pens, that the properties or qualities of soil are inhe- 
rent : that is, the cause of productiveness is to be ascribed 
to the peculiar combination of substances composing the 
soil, which no chemical analyses have yet been able to 
discover, and which has not been produced by any arti- 
ficial combination or process. Scientific investigations of 
the soil have accomplished little else than a determination 
of the elementary substances or constituents, as well as 
some inherent properties, such as color, weight, and fa- 
cility of combination with other ingredients. A practi- 
cal examination of the adaptation of soil for cultivation, 
renders a consideration of some of the other properties 
necessary. 

The physical properties of the soil are of very great 
importance, so far as the culture of plants is concerned. 
It may, perhaps, not be asserting too much to say, that 
the physical properties of the soil exert a more direct in- 
fluence upon the plant, upon the atmosphere in contact 
with it, and upon water, than do the chemical combina- 
tions of its elements. The degree of fineness of the mine- 
ral particles of the soil; its power of cohesion, moisture; 
its adaptation to the percolation of water, and permeation 
of atmosphere ; its power to absorb moisture by capillary 
attraction, to absorb gases, to retain heat or warmth, ex- 
ert, perhaps, a greater influence than is generally believed. 

42 



PKOPERTIES OF SOILS, 43 

Therefore, it is, Vfhj soils frequently are nearly identical 
in their chemical analyses, yet diflfer so materially in their 
productiveness. Underdraining proposes simply to affect 
the physical condition of the soil without disturbing its 
chemical composition. 

Clai/ — Pure clay forms a very heavy and compact soil ; 
but if it is burned and then ground, it forms a very 
porous soil, and is much better adapted to the growth of 
crops. A soil in which silicious (flinty sand), and calca- 
reous (limey) earths predominate, becomes so hot and 
parched, that the plants wither and die ; on the other 
hand, if these same substances are finely comminuted or 
reduced to powder, they form a soil which absorbs entirely 
too much moisture, and plants suffer in consequence. 

One hundred pounds of calcareous earths in an ordi- 
nary state, will absorb twenty-nine pounds of water, but 
when finely comminuted, will absorb eighty-five pounds.' 
Silicious earths, which usually retain no more than twenty- 
five per cent, of moisture, when properly prepared in a 
chemical laboratory, may be made to retain two hundred 
and eighty per cent, of moisture. 

The variety of colors in soil, is not very considerable, 
generally brown or gray, changing into yellow; but some- 
times it is found very red or black ; sometimes it is 
strongly inclined to white, blue or green, and sometimes 
almost endless shades present themselves. The soils all 
appear much darker in the field than in the laboratory, 
because in the former place they are always moist, and in 
the latter, dry. The predominating mineral constituent, 
generally, imparts the color to the soil — thus, a soil in 
which iron predominates, is of a reddish hue, an alumin- 

1 Gerardin's Views of Agriculture. 



44 LAND DRAINAGE. 

ous one, yellow, a calcareous one, bluish or whitish. When 
humus (decayed vegetable or organic matter) is mingled 
with a soil, it assumes a dark brown or blackish appear- 
ance, so that, in course of time, the original color of the 
soil will entirely disappear. Porphyry, mica schist, the 
clay slates, and the various sandstone formations produce 
a reddish soil. Basalt produces a brown or black ; ser- 
pentine, green ; phonolitc or clinkstone (a feldspathic 
rock), white ; sandstone, plaster and white lime produce 
a whitish gray soil. Humus (when derived from turf 
alone) produces at first a grayish brown, but eventually a 
black soil. Luster occurs in connection with color, only 
in instances where a moist clay has been overturned by a 
polished plow or other smooth metallic substance. When 
such polished surfaces occur on the soil, as it is being 
plowed, they are unmistakable evidence of comparative 
nonproductiveness, because they indicate a want of humus 
and porosity. Soils in which mica, or small shining par- 
ticles, abound, is generally not of good quality. 

The color is of great importance in practical agricul- 
ture, from the well-known fact, that dark colors always 
retain the heat from the sun much longer than light 
colored ones. 

Dark soils are generally acknowledged to be more pro- 
ductive than light ones — but this fertility is due to other 
causes, perhaps, in as great degree, as to the color — they 
generally contain humus, or at least some organic matter. 
If, then, we assume the importance of the color of the 
soil as a fixed fact, and as a condition having an influence 
on temperature, we then have some data from which the 
amelioration or improvement in a physical aspect is to be 
determined. 

Experience has taught that coarse dark particles of soil 
retain warmth longer than fine particles; hence, intelligent 



PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 45 

gardeners often mix muck, fine coal, boneclust, etc., with 
some calcareous soil, and distribute it among the soil in 
the hotbeds, and between the grapevines, when they wish 
to force fruits and fit them early for market. Sometimes 
they strew bits of slate around the plants — " this is mainly 
practiced on the banks of the Moselle, Nahe, Maas and 
the Rhine." ' On a dark soil the vine ajways becomes 
more juicy, and contains more saccharine matter than on 
light soils in the same situation in all other respects. 

Numerous experiments might be cited to prove that the 
color of the soil varies the temperature nearly fifty per 
cent. For example : if a calcareous clay soil is placed in 
a white flower pot, and exposed to the rays of the sun, it 
will increase sixteen degrees only in temperature, while 
the same soil in a black pot by the side of it, will have in- 
creased twenty-four degrees. Gerardin asserts that the 
period of ripening potatoes is varied from eight to four- 
teen days, by the color of the soil. In proof of this, he 
planted, at the same time, an equal number of varieties 
in different soils, and found that in white clay sixteen va- 
rieties; in yellow clay, nineteen; in whitish sandy soil, 
twenty, but in dark humus soil, twenty-six varieties, had 
fully ripened at the same time. 

As the density or compactness of soil is diff"erently un- 
derstood by different parties, we shall endeavor to be as 
explicit as possible on this point. Generally, by density 
or heaviness, is understood the amount of pressure which 
one body exerts on another, or in other words, density 
and specific gravity are regarded as synonymous. But 
in agricultural literature, heaviness is rather synony- 
mous with compactness or cohesiveness, than with weight. 
By a heavy soil, is meant one that is difficult to work, on 



1 Yager's Bodenkunde. 



46 LAND DRAINAGE. 

account of its adhesiveness ; the term is really applicable 
to clay soils only, because they are capable of retaining 
a large amount of water, and because clay, of itself, is 
comparatively heavy; but, at the same time, a sandy soil 
is termed a light soil, although its specific gravity is 
greater than that of the clay. Practically, the specific 
gravity of a soil is of little importance. During a rise of 
waters, the sandy particles always settle at the bottom, 
while the really fertile portions are deposited on the 
top of the ground as the water recedes. 

As a general thing, a soil of great specific gravity is 
porous, while those really lighter, by weight, when dried, 
are the heaviest to work. From the foregoing, it will be 
observed that cohesion is of much more importance than 
specific gravity. As the soil is composed of many par- 
ticles of different substances, it will either be tenacious 
or mellow, compact or loose, in proportion as one or seve- 
ral of the component parts predominate ; therefore, as 
soils are composed of almost all possible proportions of 
these several elements, soils will be found of all corres- 
ponding degrees of tenacity or porosity — hence, having 
a knowledge of the combining elements to produce a soil, 
we term a tenacious soil, a heavy one, and a mellow or 
porous one, a light one without any regard to its actual 
specific gravity. 

The greatest degree of cohesion is termed tenacious, 
strong, or impervious. Thus, we say a tenacious clay, a 
strong clay, or an impervious clay. A compact soil is one 
in Avhich the particles adhere so strongly to each other as 
to be difficult of separation, and that can not be crumbled 
by the fingers. A tough soil is always a compact one when 
dry • a tough soil is difficult to till when wet or moist, and 
no less difficult when dry. A mellow soil is one that will 
crumble upon slight pressure in thp hand. Clay soils may. 



PKOPEKTIES OF SOILS. 



47 



be made mellow by the application of sand, humus, and by 
frosts in the course of cultivation, but they are never mel- 
low without the aid of man. 

The cohesion of the soil depends entirely upon the 
amount of clay incorporated with it — the larger the pro- 
portion of clay is. the more cohesive will the soil be, and 
the more sand it contains, the mellower it will be. Ac- 
cording to Schuebler's experiments, the following named 
soils exhibited the degree of tenacity or cohesion placed 
in the corresponding columns: 



Description of soil. 




Degrees of 


Cohesion according 






cohesion. 


to weight. 


Pure clay, 


. 


100. 


24. 


Pipe clay, _ _ . 


- 


83.3 


19. 


Brickmakers' clay, 


. 


68.8 


15.3 


Common clay, 


- 


57.3 


13.2 


Loamy clay, 


- 


33. 


7.5 


Slaty marl, - - - 


- 


23. 


5.2 


Carbonate of magnesia, - 


- 


11.5 


2.3 


Humus, - - . 


. 


8.7 


1.5 


Plaster of Paris, - 


. 


7.3 


1.2 


Fine calcareous soil, - 


- 


5. 


1. 


Sand, 


- 


0. 


0. 



The more cohesive a soil is, the greater is its liability 
to be adhesive in a moist state. This adhesion often ren- 
ders an otherwise productive soil very undesirable, on ac- 
count of the resistance it offers in tillage. Some German 
writer, whose name I can not ascertain, instituted a series 
of experiments to determine the positive as well as com- 
parative amount of '■^ adhesive resistance" to implements 
generally employed in agriculture, the results of which 
are embodied in the following table : 



48 



LAND DRAIXAGE. 



Moist soils. 


Degree of adhesive resistance to agri- 
cultural implements exerted by a su- 
perficial square foot, on 




Iron. 


Woud. 


Pure white clay, - - - 

Pipe clay, - - - - 

Fine calcareous earth. 

Gypseous earth, . . _ 

Brickmakers' clay. 

Humus, - . - - 

Common clay, - . . 

Loamy clay, - - - - 

Magnesian earth, 

Slaty marl, . - - - 

Lime sand, . . - 

Quartz sand, - - - - 


27. 

17.2 

14.3 

10.7 

10.6 

8.8 

7.9 

6.8 

5.8 

4.9 

4.1 

3.8 


29.2 

18.9 

15.6 

11.8 

11.4 

9.4 

8.9 

6.4 

7.1 

5.5 

4.4 

4.3 



Many other properties are connected with the cohesive- 
ncss of the soil, such as the permeability of water, capil- 
lary attraction and retention of moisture, penetrability of 
the atmosphere, retention of Avarmth, etc. 

A cohesive or compact soil is, in consequence of its 
tenacity and retention of moisture, always cool or cold, 
hecause, in the first place, it is impermeable to the air, and 
does not absorb and retain the warmth of the sun, but 
loses its moisture through evaporation only ; and it is a 
well-known fact, that evaporation is a cooling process. 
On the other hand, a mellow soil is warm, because it does 
not retain moisture, and is not cooled by evaporation. 

A cohesive soil contracts or shrinks when dried. This 
contraction causes wide and sometimes very deep fissures 
or cracks, while a mellow soil does not perceptibly either 
contract or expand, but settles down and becomes more 
compact. A pure humus soil contracts as much if not 
more than clay, during a season of drought, but is held 
together in masses by vegetable fibers, with which it is 
interspersed ; but whenever sand is mixed with humus, it 
ceases to contract. The best and cheapest method of 
ameliorating a clay soil is to underdrain, and expose it as 



PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 49 

thoroughly as possible to the action of frost. For this 
reason it should be plowed into ridges, even if very clod- 
dy, in the fall, so that the frost may have the largest pos- 
sible amount to operate on, and by spring it will be found 
to be much ameliorated. 

Hetentivencssof 3fo{sture. — The capacity to retain moist- 
ure and exclude the permeation of the atmosphere de- 
pends entirely upon the cohesiveness of the soil. A co- 
hesive soil is almost impervious, while a mellow soil is 
always porous. Pure clay will retain water until it is ex- 
hausted by evaporation, while pure sand is so porous that 
it may be said to swallow the water. Neither of these ex- 
tremes is a desirable quality, but a medium or mean be- 
tween the two is really what is requisite. It is always 
better to have a soil too porous than to have one too com- 
pact. A well-tilled soil is seldom so compact as to retain 
moisture in quantities to act injuriously upon vegetation. 
Every effort, therefore, which will remove surplus moist- 
ure, or such moisture as is in actual excess of the absolute 
amount required for vegetation, is an effort to assist nature, 
and consequently is in the right direction. 

By porosity of the soil, must be understood not merely 
its adaptation to permit water to filter through it, but also 
the capacity to draw moisture from the subsoil by or 
through capillary attraction. It is a Avell-known fact, that 
mellow soils are, even in times of drought, more moist 
than tenacious or compact soils are ; they absorb moisture 
from below, on the same principle that the sponge absorbs 
and elevates moisture. Even a very sandy soil, resting; 
on an impervious or tenacious subsoil, is better adapted 
for crops during a drought than a heavy clay soil, solely 
on account of its capillary capacity. 

But an essential quality of a good soil is, that while it 
6 



50 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



is porous enough to filter the surface water, and possesses 
a proper capillary capacity, that it at the same time pos- 
sesses another important quality, namely, the retention 
of moisture. This latter quality appears to depend upon 
the decomposition and comminution of the mineral sub- 
stances, and the decay of organic materials of which the 
soil is composed. Every kind or quality of soil will ab- 
sorb or imbibe a certain amount of moisture, until it is 
completely saturated, and the remainder will drip or flow 
away. The amount imbibed is generally less than the 
weight of a given quantity of the soil. 

Schuebler, it appears, took a pound of the various kinds 
of soil, after they were thoroughly dried, then saturated 
them with water and weighed them ; the excess of weight 
when saturated over the weight when dry, of course, would 
give the capacity of retaining moisture. Thus, if a pound 
of soil when dry weighed a pound, but a pound and a half 
when saturated, it is very evident the absorbing capacity 
of that soil is 50 per cent. From Schuebler's experiments 
we have compiled the following table : 





■3S;> 




"S 2 a- 




"■•■: c- 




^■S C 


Soils. 


2r.o 


Soils. 


s 11 




3 S-'S- 




3 S- 2. 




o-vt; Z 




«■<< s. 




c 




3 




cr? 




n 


Quartz sand, - 


25 


Common soil (what kind?) 


52 


Gj'pseous soil. 


27 


Pipe clay. 


61 


Lime sand, 


29 


Pure clay. 


70 


Slaty marl, 


34 


Fine calcareous earth, 


85 


Loamy clay, - 


40 


Fullers' earth. 


87 


Calcareous soil. 


47 


Humus, 


181 


Brickmakers' clay. 


50 


Fine magnesia, 

1 


256 



This table presents several very striking facts. In the 
first place, it shows that coarse particles, like sand, retain 
less moisture than the same material when finely commi- 
nuted. For example, the lime, when reduced to particles 
of the size of common sand, will retain 29 per cent, only 



PROPERTIES OV SOILS. 



51 



of moisture ; while a limy soil (clay and lime) will retain 47 
per cent,, and the limy soil, reduced to powder, will retain 
85 per cent. Now, as underdraining and culture reduce 
the particles of soil, it is very evident that the longer soils 
are cultivated the greater will be their retentive capacity. 

Light clay soils appear the best adapted to retain moist- 
ure, while at the same time they appear to have a more 
desirable kind of porosity than either sand or heavy clay. 
Humus absorbs the largest proportion of water, but when 
it parts with it not unfrequently becomes so dry that it 
floats on the water ; it is not an active absorber. 

Another quality which is possessed by soils, and proper 
to be mentioned here, is the degree of rapidity with which 
soils part with the imbibed moisture. It is very evident 
that the sand will part with its 25 per cent., in the form 
either of a filtration or an evaporation, much sooner than 
brickmakers' clay will, with its 50 per cent., or humus its 
181 per cent. To determine this point precisely, Schue- 
bler exposed soils containing 100 parts of water to a heat 
of 66° F., during a period of four hours. He found the 
water in 





Evapo- 




Evapo- 




rated. 




rated. 




Per cent. 




Per cent. 


Quartz sand, 


88.4 


Common soil (what kind?) 


32. 


Lime sand, 


75.9 


Pure elay, - 


31.9 


Gypseous earth, 


71.7 


Fine calcareous soil. 


28.0 


Slaty marl, 


68.8 


Garden soil (what kind?) 


24.3 


Loamy claj', 


52. 


Humus, 


20.5 


Brickmakers' clay, 


45.7 


Magnesia, - 


10.8 


Pipe clay. 


34.9 







As a laboratory experiment, this table may be very val- 
uable, but in practical agriculture we do not consider it 
very reliable, or of any absolute value. Every one knows 
that the exposure toward the north or south, east or west, 
would materially affect the retentive quality, so far as 



0-Z 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



evaporation by the sun's rays is concerned; and equally 
as much would they be affected by the winds. A sharp 
north-west wind might "dry up" a clay soil as much as 
the sun would dry up a humus soil. Then, too, if fur- 
rows are plowed deep and narrow, more surface will be 
exposed to the action of the elements than if plowed wide 
and shallow. A sandy soil, covered with a mat of grass, 
would not evaporate moisture as rapidly as an exposed 
clay would. 

The property of expansion and contraction of soils is 
intimately connected with the capacity of absorbing and 
retaining moisture. Some soils, when fully saturated, do 
not expand a particle, while others expand very much ; 
those which expand the most Avhen saturated, also con- 
tract the most when the moisture is exhausted. The com- 
parative expansive or contractive capacity of soils may 
be very readily determined in the following manner : take 
a common brickmaker's mold, and fill it with thoroughly 
saturated soil, as compactly as possible, with the hand, 
then. expose it either for days in unobstructed sunshine, or 
else expose it to artificial heat, not exceeding 212° Fahren- 
heit ; Avhen the soil is thoroughly dried, it will be found — 
according to the kind employed — to have shrunk more or 
less. Schuebler's investigations indicated that 



lOOO parts of 


M'ill contract. 
Parts. 


1000 jiarts of 


Will contract. 
Parts. 


Lime or quartz sand, 
Calcareous soil, 
Loamy clay, 
Brick makers' clay, - 
Slaty marl, 


0. 
50. 
60. 
85. 
95. 


Pipe clay. 

Carbonate of magnesia. 

Pure clay, 

Ilumus, 


lU. 
154. 
183. 
200. 



These experiments confirm repeated observations, that 
a soil in which clay predominates always contracts, and 



PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 



53 



becomes full of fissures or cracks, when it is perfectly 
dry ; but that in sandy soil no such change takes place. 
But every day's experience contradicts the statement rel- 
ative to humus in the above table ; it is a well known fact, 
that humus or turf never cracks, even in the hottest and 
driest weather. There is no doubt that cracking is in a 
very great degree due to the amount of moisture contained, 
and the rapidity with which it is evaporated. The same 
soil will contain many more fissues, if dried suddenly, than 
if dried slowly. 

Another property inherent in soils must not be omitted, 
namely : the capability of absorbing moisture from the 
atmosphere. This property manifestly is dependent on 
the porosity of the soil ; for it is very evident that a soil 
which readily absorbs a rain fall, will also absorb moisture 
when it is presented in the form of fog or dew, or even 
from the atmosphere direct. We must again refer to 
Schuebler to ascertain the degree in which this property 
is possessed by the various soils. He took 1,000 grains 
of dried soil of each kind, and spread each kind respect- 
ively on a surface of 50 inches, and found that 





AbsorbcJ in 




12 hours. 


•24 hours. 


48 hours. 


72 hours. 




Grain.s. 


Grains. 


Grains. 


Grains. 


Quartz sand, - 





• 








Gj'pseous earth, - 


] 


1 


1 


1 


Lime sand. 


2 


3 


3 


3 


Common soil (what kind ?) 


16 


22 


23 


23 


Loamy clay, - 


21 


26 


28 


28 


Slaty marl, 


24: 


29 


32 


33 


Brickmakers' clay. 


25 


30 


34 


35 


Fine calcareous earth, 


26 


31 


35 


35 


Pipe clay, 


30 


36 


40 


41 


Garden soil, having 7 per 










cent, humus, 


35 


45 


50 


52 


Pure clay, 


37 


42 


43 


49 


Fine magnesia. 


69 


76 


80 


82 


Ilumub, - - - 


80 


97 


110 


120 



54 LAND DRAINAGE. 

It will be seen at a glance that the greatest proportion 
of the moisture is absorbed during the first twelve hours. 
Soils in the fields seldom, if ever, become so thoroughly 
dried as those employed in Schuebler's experiments ; hence 
the absorption Avill necessarily be much less than the pro- 
portion stated in the table. The experiments simply con- 
firm every day's observations, that the absorbing powers 
of clay are increased by the addition of sand; hut practice 
does not confirm the statement with regard to humus. It 
is a well known fact, that a piece of humus, so dry 
that it will float, may lie in a damp cellar, or other moist 
place, for months, without absorbing a perceptible amount 
of moisture. 

Porosity is, after all, of more importance than the prop- 
erty of absorbing a large quantity of moisture, because 
in a porous soil moisture can penetrate to a greater ex- 
tent. Although quartz sand does not absorb any appre- 
ciable amount of moisture, it is a well ascertained fact that 
a moist atmosphere is productive of good results on a 
sandy soil ; plants flourish and grow well, Avhile under the 
same conditions they very soon die away in a heavy clay. 
What practical benefit is then to be derived from the great 
absorbing power of clay, if the moisure is confined to the 
surface only; while in sand, with no power of absorption, 
the particles of moisture can permeate everywhere? But 
it is asserted that the air absorbs more moisture from the 
soil than it imparts to it ; however true this assertion may 
be, the advantages to growing crops of moisture imparted 
to the soil from the atmosphere, is acknoAvledged by every 
intelligent and observing agriculturist. 

The capacity of soils to absorb gaseous elements from 
the atmosphere, is one of the most important properties. 
The fertilizing properties of gaseous elements are so well 
known, and generally acknowledged, as not to require any 



PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 55 

illustration or argument; the only object really accom- 
plished by plowing is, a loosening of the soil, so as to 
permit the permeation of the atmosphere, and conse- 
quently absorption of gases and moisture from it by the 
soil. The most important, as well as most universal of 
these gases is oxygen; it combines chemically with moist 
(never with dried) soil, as well as it combines physically 
or mechanically with hydrogen to form water. " Sprout- 
ing," or germination, would be utterly impossible without 
oxygen; hence, seeds germinate much more readily in a 
properly-formed seed-bed — that is, where the soil has 
been reduced to mellowness and ordinarily well pulverized, 
than in a soil not so prepared. In proof of this assertion, 
we need only refer to the fact that, in forests, seeds of in- 
digenous plants frequently become so completely excluded 
from the action of the atmosphere, that, when again ex- 
posed to it, after a lapse of many years, they at once germ- 
inate and grow. 

Subsoils, or such soils as lie beneath the surface and 
beyond the influence of the atmosphere, are termed 
" dead" or '■'■wild" soils, and are, as a matter of course, 
unproductive. But as soon as they are exposed to atmos- 
pheric influences, and especially th9 action of the frost, 
they become very productive. Some soils possess the 
property of absorbing gases in a much greater degree 
than others; blue clay, or hard pan, for instance, does 
not possess this property in any very considerable degree : 
hence, it must be exposed a very long time to atmospheric 
influences before it becomes fertile. We must again refer 
to Schuebler's experiments for the precise degrees in 
which the different soils possess the property. 



56 



LAND DRAINAGE. 





Absorbs. 




Absorbs. 




Per cent. 




Per cent. 


AVhile humus, - 


20 


Clay slate, 


11 


llich garden soil, - 


18 


Brickmakers' clay, 


11 


Magnesia, 


17 


Fine calcareous soil. 


10 


Good arable soil, - 


16 


Yellow clay, - 


9 


Pure clay, 


15 


Lime sand, 


5 


Pipe clay, - 


13 


Gypseous earth, 


2 


Slaty marl. 


1.3 


Quartz sand, 


1 



No less important than any of the qualities already 
enumerated, is the property of absorbing and retaining 
warmth. This property depends entirely upon the color, 
compactness, porosity, moisture, and the exposure to the 
rays of the sun. We have already referred to the fact 
that dark soils absorb and retain the sun's rays, while 
light colored soil reflect without absorbing them. In the 
course of the succeeding chapters, we shall fully discuss 
the effects of the absorption of warmth, and its conse- 
quences ; nothing further need be remarked here, than to 
refer to Schuebler' s experiments for the degrees or pro- 
portion in which the various soils possess the property of 
absorbing and retaining heat. 



Soils. 


Retentive j 


Soils. 


Retentive 




capacity, i 




capacity. 


Limo sand. 


100 


Arable soil (what kind?) 


70 


Slaty marl, 


9.i 


Pipe clay, 


68 


Quartz sand, - 


95 


Pure clay, 


66 


Hard Pan, or " Blue 




Garden soil (what kind?) 


64 


clay," 


76 


Fine calcareous earth. 


61 


Gypseous earths, - 


73 


Humus, - 


49 


Brickmakers' clay. 


71 


Fine magnesian soil, - 


38 



From this it will be seen that a limy or sandy soil is 
much warmer soil than the clays : hence, a loamy soil, 
having a proper admixture of sand, is warmer than a clay 
soil. 



PKOPERTIES OP SOILS. 



57 



Many persons suppose that the soil differs from the 
subsoil, in no other respect than that the soil has been 
cultivated, and has in consequence assumed a more po- 
rous character. While this in some cases may be correct, 
it can by no means be adopted as a rule. The subsoil, 
as a general thing, is a distinct geological formation from 
the soil itself — the soil may be a sandy loam, while the 
subsoil is an impervious clay — or the soil may be a loam, 
while the subsoil is gravel and sand. Where the subsoil 
is gravelly or sandy, as a general thing, drainage is neces- 
sary ; yet, there are cases, which we will discuss in the 
proper place, Avhere gravelly subsoils require drainage as 
imperatively as clayey ones do. If the subsoil were 
always as porous as the cultivated soil, there would be 
less occasion for thorough drainage, but as this is not the 
case, drainage becomes necessary if not indispensable. 

The crust of the earth is composed of rocks, or of the 
material which once was rock, disposed in stata, one above 
the other, like the concentric iieels of an onion, but the 
regularity of stratification has, in many places, been in- 
terrupted by earthquakes and volcanic action.^ 

A a h c d e 




[Fig. '2. 



In passing over a region of country from A to e, Fig. 
2, we may find at A, a deposit of shale, but it soon dis- 



1 Volcanic forces have operated from beneath upon most of the older 
rocks, whereby they have been bent upward. The weight of the ocean, 
drift, etc., has bent them downward; gravity and other agencies more lo- 
cal, have produced a lateral pressure, especially when the strata were highly 
inclined; and these various agencies will account for nearly every case of 
flexure, not only of the lamina;, but of the beds also. — Hitchcock' a Elemen- 
tary Geology, page 18. 



58 LAND DEAINAGE. 

appears, and we find we are traveling on limestone as at 
a, then we find the limestone disappearing, and we are 
on a heavy clay ; at b we find ourselves on a sandstone 
formation, then again on a heavy clay ; then at c we find it 
gravelly, then shale, perhaps, and again a clay formation 
at d. The soil which may be represented by a line just 
above the upper edge of these formations, as from A to b, 
is, perhaps, a mixture of all the rocks on which it rests, 
and demonstrates, very clearly, why the subsoil may be 
different at difterent points, under the same kind of soil, 
as at A and a, or b and c. A farm situated at c, would 
not require any drainage; while one situated between a 
and b, would not be of any great value without it. 




[Fig. 3.] 

In the annexed Fig. 3, A and B, represent portions of 
strata elevated by volcanic action, forming a basin, B 3/, 
in which the strata, 1 and 2, have subsequently been 
formed. Now, suppose 1 to represent a deposit of gravel, 
2 a deposit or formation of blue or yellow clay, 3 a lime 
rock, and 4 a sandstone strata. The rains fallin<r at B 
and at/, will readily percolate toward the center of the 
basin, because the strata i^orous, while the rains from a 
to d will penetrate the eant very slowly. A field situ- 
ated at B, although actually lower than one at d, may, 
nevertheless, be much drier, and in a workable condition, 
while the one situated at d, is saturated with moisture. 
All the rain falling between a and d, except that which 
flows from the surface and that evaporated, will penetrate 



PROPERTIES OP SOILS. 59 

until ii reaches the limestone strata, 3, which is imper- 
vious, and of course, arrests its further progress — the re- 
sult is, that at 6 a sivamp is formed from the excess of 
water which can find no outlet or means of escape. 

This same figure may serve to illustrate the principle 
of artesian wells. Strata No. 4, heing porous, is con- 
stantly saturated with water, and is what is termed a 
tvater hearing rock. Now, if the strata 4 be penetrated 
at a or h, the pressure from / Avill cause the water to rise 
at a or 5, to the same level of /; at c, the water would 
rise to the level of the earth only, being in the center of 
the basin, the water would not rise higher than the out- 
crop of the strata, as at B ; at d, it would not rise to the 
surface, and at 1 it would remain at some distance below 
the surface. 



CHAPTER II. 



HOW DRAINAGE OPERATES— HOW IT AFFECTS THE 

SOIL. 

It would be no difficult matter to collect a volume of 
experiments, made in laboratories and elsewhere, which 
Avere made to ascertain the precise workings of drainage. 
One of the most cheap, simple, and at the same time most 
satisfactory experiments, to determine the advantage of 
draining, is the following : Take two ordinary earthen- 
ware flowerpots, the one having a hole or perforation in 
the bottom, and the other to be witliout any orifice in 
either sides or bottom. Fill both with precisely the same 
quantity and quality of soil, and plant in each, either 
growing plants or seeds of any ordinary cultivated plants. 
The perforated pot will represent a drained soil, while 
the other represents an undrained one. Give to both the 
same exposure, and the same quantity of water. If seeds 
are sown in both, those in the perforated pot will germin- 
ate the soonest, and the plants become the thriftiest and 
hardiest ; sometimes, though seldom, the plants in the 
other pot wull not germinate at all ; but generally, they 
do germinate, although they produce only sickly and slen- 
der plants. In this manner, the effect of drainage is com- 
pletely demonstrated. 

If both flowerpots are placed in earthen saucers or 
dishes, and water poured in the dishes, that pot having 
the perforation will absorb the water by capillary at- 
traction — the plant Avill receive its due proportion, and 
thrive; while the unperforated pot will not absorb any 
water, and the plant will suffer from drought; thus show- 



HOAV DRAINAGE AFFECTS THE SOIL. 



61 



ing the effect or benefit of drainage in times of drought. 
But the best method of demonstrating the manner in 
which drainage operates, is by the following apparatus : 




[Fi,; 4.] 

Fill a glass vessel, E, with moistened soil, to the. hight 
of six or more inches — the bottom of the vessel being 
provided with a stop-cock, K, which should penetrate 
several inches into the soil, so as to represent a pipe-tile 
as nearly as possible. The mouth of the vessel, E, should 
be firmly closed with a cork, C, through which is inserted 
a tube, whose upper portion is a, funnel, A, provided with 
a stop-cock, B. This tube is for the purpose of introduc- 
ing water on the soil within ; and the cock, B, to prevent 
the introduction of air from that source, after sufficient 
water has been introduced. The other tube which passes 
through the cork, C, is luted to another tube at D. This 
last is inserted at G, into the vessel, I, which is partially 
filled with water ; but the tube, G, should not be inserted 
so deep as to touch the water. The vessel, I, is provided 
with three orifices or openings ; through one of these 
orifices a tube is inserted at F, to admit air, in such a 
manner, however, as to compel it to pass through the 
water — the air being lighter than the water, will, of course, 



62 LAND DRAINAGE. 

rise through it in the form of bubbles ; or rather, ■when 
bubbles are rising through the water, it is an indication 
that air is entering through the tube, F, from without. 
The orifice of the stop-cock, K, should be kept under 
water in the vessel, J. Having completed these arrange- 
ments, close the stop-cock, K, and open the one, B, and 
through the funnel, A, introduce as much water as would 
probably fall during an ordinary shower. It will be ob- 
served, that the water so introduced does not at once dis- 
appear, or be absorbed by the soil, but remains on the 
surface, or penetrates very slowly. This is the condition 
and action of an undrained soil. 

Now, to represent the action of rain on drained soil, 
open the stop-cock, K, and bubbles of liberated gas will 
soon be seen to rise in the vessel, J; these bubbles are 
liberated gases from the soil — those who have analyzed 
these gases, state that a large amount of oxygen, in com- 
bination with gases deleterious to plants, is contained in 
them ; and are, therefore, of opinion, that less oxygen is 
found in soil immediately after a shower, than before — 
the oxygen being restored only as soon as evaporation 
takes place. While the gases are being liberated through 
K, bubbles will be seen rising in the water in I; thus it 
is demonstrated that each shower furnishes drained soils 
with new oxygen. As soon as K is opened, the water 
which was on the surface of the soil, at E, sinks at once ; 
but as soon as it is being discharged at K, into J, the 
bubbles cease, or nearly so, to rise in I. 

A belief has obtained, that drains are of advantage or 
beneficial to the soil only, when they are conducting away 
the surplus waters from showers. It certainly is a great 
advantage to the plants to be relieved from surplus water, 
as soon as possible, but it is, at the same time, no less an ad- 
vantage to be supplied with new oxygen, and to have the 



HOW DRAINAGE AFFECTS THE SOIL. 63 

old removed. An undrained soil can not make these 
changes in its gases, for the benefit of the plant, as well 
as a drained soil. This aeration of the soil is absolutely 
necessary for the health and growth of plants. Plowing 
is nothing more or less than aerating the soil; and every 
one conversant with farming operations, is well aware, 
that plants grow best on a finely pulverized soil — that is, 
in other words, on a well aerated soil. 

Oxygen is no less essential to the roots of plants, than 
it is to the lungs of animals ; but if the oxygen is not 
changed, the result is very unfavorable to the plants. 
Every rain which falls on a porous or drained soil, brings 
not only new solvents of the inorganic materials which 
nourish the plants, that have already been oxydized, 
and thus prepared for the advent of another rain, but 
Avhen it falls on an undrained or impermeable soil, it di- 
minishes the amount of oxygen, and produces permanent 
injury to the plants, by the excessive amount of stagnant 
water, and by lowering the temperature for a longer 
period than is consistent with the health of the plant. 

No fear need be entertained that any clayey or loamy 
soil can be over drained ; or, in other words, that so much 
moisture may be drained out of the soil, as not to leave 
sufficient remaining for the use of any plants which may 
appropriately be grown in the soil. 

All soils have what is termed " capillai-y aftracfion,'^ 
that is, the power to suck up, or elevate to the surface 
mineral matters in solution, or moisture from the subsoil; 
and the finer the soil is pulveriz;ed, the stronger the 
capillary attraction. In proof of this position, the fol- 
lowing, from the pen of J. H. Salisbury, an agricultural 
chemist of New York, is here inserted : 

" From numerous observations which have been made at different 
times on the peculiar appearance of the surface of soils, clays, etc., 



64 



LAND DKAINAGE. 



during the warm summer month;?, and the fact that they, when 
covered with boards, stones, or other materials, so as to prevent them 
from supporting vegetation, become, in a comparatively short time, 
much more productive than the adjacent uncovered soil, we have 
been led to the belief that the soil possessed some power within itself, 
aside from the roots of plants, of elevating soluble materials from 
deep sources to the surface.^ 

"To throw some light upon the subject, in May, 1852,1 sunk three 
boxes into the soil — one 40 inches deep ; another 28 inches deep, 
and a third 16 inches deep. All three of the boxes were 16 inches 
square. 1 then placed in the bottom of each box, three pounds of 
sulphate of magnesia. The soil which was to be placed in the boxes 
above the sulphate of magnesia, was then thoroughly mixed, so as to 
be uniform throughout. 

" The boxes were then filled with it. This was done on the 25th 
of May, 1852. After the boxes were filled, a sample of soil was 
taken from each box, and the percentage of magnesia which it con- 
tained accurately determined. On the 28th of June, another sample 
of surface soil was taken from each box, and the percentage of mag- 
nesia carefully obtained as before. 

"The restilt in each case pointed out clearly a marked increase 
of magnesia. On the 17th of. July, a sample of surface soil was 
taken a third time from each box, and carefully examined for mag- 
nesia; its percentage was found to be very perceptibly greater than 
on the 28th of the preceding month. On the loth of the months of 
August and September following, similar examinations severally 
were made, with the same evident gradual increase of the magnesia 
in the surface soil. 

" The followincr are the results as obtained : 



May 25, - 
June 28, - 
July 17, 
August 15, 
September 15, 



Percentage of Magnesia. 



Box 40 in. 


deep. 


Box 28 in. deep. 


Box 16 in. deep. 


0.18 




0.18 


0.18 


0.25 




0.30 


0.32 


0.42 




0.46 


0.47 


0.47 




0.53 


0.54 


0.51 




0.58 


0.61 



1 Dr. Alex. H. Stephens, of New York, was, I think, the first to suggest 
this idea. He speaks of it in his address, delivered before the State Agri- 
cultural Society of New York, on the Food of Plants, in January, 1848. No 
accurate experiments were performed, however, to fix it with a degree of 
certainty, till these were made which appear in this paper. 



HOW DRAINAGE AFFECTS THE SOIL. 65 

"Before the middle of October, when it was intended to make an- 
other observation, the fall rains and frosts had commenced; on this 
account the observations were discontinued. The elevation of the 
magnesia, as shown in the above experiments, evidently depends 
upon a well-known and common property of matter, viz : the attrac- 
tion of solids for liquids, or what is commonly denominated capil- 
lary attraction. This may be clearly illustrated by taking a series 
of small capillary glass tubes, and insert one extremity of them in a 
solution of sulphate of magnesia or chloride of ammonium, and break 
or cut off the upper extremities just below the hight to which the 
solution rises. Expose them to the sun's rays; the water of the so- 
lution evaporates, and the fixed sulphate of magnesia will be depos- 
ited just on the upper extremity of the tube. As the solution evap- 
orates more of it rises up from below, keeping the tubes constantly 
full ; yet no sulphate of magnesia passes off; it all, or nearly all, re- 
mains at or rises just above the evaporating surface. Just so in the 
soil ; as the Avater evaporates from the surface, more water, impreg- ■ 
nated with the soluble materials from below, rises up to supply its 
place. As this evaporation goes on, it leaves the fixed materials be- 
hind in the surface soil at the several points of evaporation. 

" This explains why we often find, during the months of July, 
August and September, a crust of soluble salts covering the surface 
of clay deposits which arc highly impregnated with the alkalies, or 
any of the soluble compounds of the metals, earths, or alkaline 
earths , also, the reason in many instances of the incrustations upon 
rocks that are porous and contain soluble materials. It also helps 
to explain the reason why manures, when applied for a short or 
longer time upon the surface of soil, penetrates to so slight a depth. 
Every agriculturist is acquainted with the fact that the soil directly 
under his barn-yai"d, two feet below the surface (that is, any soil of 
ordinary fineness), is quite as poor as that covered with boards or 
otherwise two feet below the surface in his meadow; the former hav- 
ing been for years directly under a manure heap, while the latter, 
perhaps, has never had barn-yard manure within many rods of it. 

" The former has really been sending its soluble materials up to 
the manure and surface soil ; the lattei-, to the surface soil and the 
vegetation near or upon it, if uncovered. 

" The capillary attraction must vary very much in different soils ; 
that is, some have the power of elevating soluble materials to the 
surface from much deeper sources than others. The pores or inter- 
stices in the soil correspond to capillary tubes; the less the diame- 



66 LAND DRAINAGE. 

ter of the pores or tubes, the higher tlie materials are elevated. 
Hence one very important consideration to the agriculturist, when 
he wishes nature to aid him in keeping his soil fertile, is to secure a 
soil in a fine state of mechanical division, and of a highly retentive 
nature. 

" Nothing is more common than to see soils retain their fertility 
with the annual addition of much less manure than certain others. 
In fact, a given quantity of manure on the former will serve to 
maintain their fertility for several years ; while the latter, with a 
similar addition, quite lose the good effects of the manure in a single 
season. 

"The former soils have invariably the rocks, minerals, etc., which 
compose them in a fine state of division ; while the latter have their 
particles more or less coarse." 

The rich, clay soil contains very many small pores, 
while the quartz sand, and especially the coarse, sharp 
sand, has larger spaces, which are not properly capillary 
pores. Like any other small apertures and spaces, the 
small pores of the soil are capable of imbibing and retain- 
ing water, contrary to the laws of its gravity. On the 
other hand, in the larger spaces or pores, the water moves 
entirely according to the laws of gravity. When Ave place 
a flowerpot, filled with earth, in a dish filled with water, 
the small or capillary pores will draw the water up, while 
the larger spaces will be filled with water no higher than 
they are under the surface of the Avater in the dish. And 
if Ave pour water upon the earth in a flowerpot, we may 
pour a certain quantity upon it without even a drop com- 
ing out of the hole in the bottom of the pot, simply be- 
cause it is retained through capillarity in the fine pores.- 
But when all the capillary pores are filled with water, then 
the water poured on will flow down the larger spaces, and, 
according to the laws of gravity, escape through the hole 
in the bottom of the pot. As the quantity and extension 
of the fine pores are very unequal in the difi"erent kinds 
of soil, the quantity of water Avhich they are capable of 



HOW DRAINAGE AFFECTS THE SOIL. 67 

absorbing and retaining through capillarity (or their "re- 
tentive power," as it is called), also varies greatly. The 
humus, or clay soil, retains most water; the coarse, sandy 
soil, least. 

In order that we may be clearly understood, when 
speaking of the different kinds of soil, we have concluded 
to adopt the following classification of soils from the 
3Iark Lane Express: 

" The best classification of soils is a chemical clasHification, founded 
on their composition accoi'ding to the proportion of sand separable 
by -washing; it divides them into sands, sandy loams, loams, clay 
loams and clays. It subdivides these again into fine and coarse 
sands and sandy loams, according to the size of the particles of 
sand, and into gravelly sands, loams and clays, according to the pro- 
portion of pebbles or fragments of rocks. The proportion of calca- 
reous matter indicates whether they are to be called marly or calca- 
reous sands, loams and clays ; while, if they contain a certain pro- 
portion of vegetable matter, they are called vegetable soils. Each 
name should express some defined proportion of sand separable by 
washing, and of calcareous or vegetable matter. Tn such a classifi- 
cation as we advocate we should have : 

1. Silicious soils, containing from 90 to 95 per cent, of sand. 
These would be divided, on the same principle, into blowing sand, 
coarse sand, good agricultural sand and calcareous sand. 

2. Loamy soils, 70 to 90 per cent, ^of sand separable by washing, 
subdivided into coarse sandy loam, fine sandy loam, loam, rich loam 
and calcareous loam. 

3. Clayey soils, with 40 to 70 per cent, of sand; divided into clay 
loam, clay and calcareous clay. 

Each of these soils termed calcareous sand, calcareous loam, etc., 
contain 5 per cent, of lime. 

Marly soils constitute a fourth group, in which the proportion of 
lime ranges between 5 and 20 per cent., and are divided into sandy 
marls, loamy marls and clayey marls. 

Calcareous soils contain more than 20 per cent, of lime. They are 
divided into sandy calcareous, loamy calcareous and clayey calcare- 
ous. While in calcareous sands, clays and loams, the proportion of 
lime does not exceed 5 per cent. The difference of composition de- 
noted by difference of name is similar to the sulphates and sulphites 



68 LAND DRAINAGE. 

of chemical nomenclature, which contain different proportions of 
sulphuric acid. 

"According to the quantity of pebble fragments yielded by a square 
yard, or by a cubic foot of the soil, they might be denominated gravels, 
or gravelly sand, loams and clays. 

" Vegetable soils vary from the common garden mold, which con- 
tains from 5 to 10 per cent, of vegetable matter to the peaty soil, in 
which the organic matter is about 60 to 70 per cent. They will be 
vegetable sands, loams, clays, marls, etc." 

Now, a sandy or silicious soil will absorb 20 per cent, 
or one fifth of its own bulk of water before it is fully sat- 
urated, or the water commences to drip from it; a loamy 
soil will absorb 40 per cent., and a clayey soil will absorb 
from 70 to 80 per cent. The coarser non-capillary pores 
of the soil can not be filled with water, unless there are 
impediments prohibiting the water from following its grav- 
ity; thus, in the flowerpot, only when the hole below is 
closed; in the arable soil, only when it is resting on or 
inclosed by an impervious stratum; but in a properly- 
drained soil the water descends as regularly as in the 
flowerpot. Whenever the water can flow unimpeded, the 
larger pores are filled with air; and, as this is necessary 
in an arable soil, because every fertile arable soil must 
contain a certain quantity of air, and, to a certain extent, 
be in communication with the atmosphere, therefore, it 
follows that, in any fertile soil, the sum of the capillary 
pores must be in a certain proportion to the non-capillary 
ones, as not to exceed a certain limit, without the soil 
thereby assuming unfertile properties. If there is a lack 
of coarser pores, as, for instance, in rich clay soil ; or, if 
the soil lacks air and communication with the atmosphere, 
then there will appear all the unfavorable properties char- 
acteristic of rich clay soil : wetness, coldness, a retarded 
decomposition of manure (inactivity), a propensity to 
forming acids, etc. On tlie contrary, if there is a lack of 



HOW DRAINAGE AFFECTS THE SOIL. 69 

capillary pores in the soil, and a preponderance of the 
larger ones, as in a sandy soil, the soil has too little re- 
tentive power, i. e., capacity of retaining water, and evap- 
orates the little water it imbibes too soon ; consequently, 
it is affected with drought ; beside, it suffers the manuring 
elements to attain a state to decompose too rapidly, and 
allows the soluble nutriments of the plants to sink too 
readily with the atmospherical water into the subsoil, and 
the volatile nutriments to ascend, with the evaporating 
water, into the atmosphere. What proportion of the ca- 
pillary pores to the non-capillary ones may be the most 
favorable in any soil, can not now be defined, but experi- 
ments for that purpose Avould undoubtedly result in many 
interesting discoveries. 

Now, if we consider the distribution of atmospherical 
water in the soil, we might, perhaps, be led to the suppo- 
sition that the uppermost strata of the soil, through their 
retentive power, must retain the water falling down upon 
them, and give nothing to those strata lying below them ; 
thus, that the uppermost strata must be perfectly saturated 
with Avater in the capillary way, while those lying below 
them, being distinctly separate, must be and remain dr3^ 

If, e. g.y the retentive power of a soil is equal to fifty, 
(or if 100 parts of the soil are capable of retaining 50 
parts of water in a capillary way), and upon this soil falls 
a rain in such a quantity as to give one pound of water 
upon every square foot of the surface, then the uppermost 
stratum of the soil, of about one fourth of an inch in 
thickness (supposed to be perfectly dried), would com- 
pletely retain the rain water in the capillary way, and the 
soil lying below it would receive none of it. If air is 
supposed to exist below the upper stratum of one fourth 
of an inch in thickness, then, of course, it would be as 
above stated, and no Avater would permeate; but if we 



70 LAND DRAINAGE. 

have a subsoil, the attraction of this earth changes the 
condition of things ; the upper soil does not remain sat- 
urated but imparts to the lower one. To what degree, 
and to what depth ? This depends upon the quality and 
the kind of earth. On this subject one may readily learn 
much by experiments. If we, for instance, put earth in 
a flowerpot, and pour so much water upon it as is suffi- 
cient to saturate, in the capillary way, the uppermost 
layer or stratum of the soil, one inch in thickness, the 
examination of the quantity of water in the earth, at the 
diiferent hights of the pot, will then show that the upper- 
most layer is fullest of water, but not saturated in the ca- 
pillary way; the water has penetrated to a certain depth, 
and that the quantity of water is steadily decreasing from 
the top down to this depth. The way of diffusing the 
water depends on the chemical composition of the soil, as 
well as on its physical properties. The fine quartz-sand, 
for instance, when in a wet condition, parts with the water 
pretty quickly; but when perfectly dry, it possesses, like 
humus, especially when not completely decomposed, a re- 
pulsive property to water, so that the water has to act 
upon it a long time in order to produce saturation. If, 
therefore, after a drought of long duration, an extra quan- 
tity of rain falls upon a loamy soil and upon a fine sandy 
soil, after a time the water will be found to have pene- 
trated pretty deep into the former, while in the latter only 
the uppermost layers are wet, but those lying below them 
remain in a state of dusty dryness. Thus, the loam soil, 
in spite of its far greater retentive power, diffuses the 
rain water more perfectly and deeper ; but the fine sand, 
with its much inferior capillary power, retains it in the 
thin uppermost stratum. These relations become still 
stronger when vegetable remains, but little decomposed, 
are mixed with the sand. Also, the more or less pulver- 



now DRAINAGE AFFECTS THE SOIL. 71 

ized state of the soil has an influence upon the capillary 
diffusion of water, but especially its being equally or une- 
qually pulverized, so that usually the distribution is more 
perfect throughout strata which are equal in this respect, 
than throughout those Avhich are unequal. 

The distribution of the water, which is drawn up from 
below through capillary attraction, is as unequal as the 
different kinds of earth. If one puts flowerpots, filled 
with sand, loam and humus soil, in dishes of water, the 
absorption of the same will take place in a very different 
way; and the length of time within which the absorbed 
water will appear at the surface will vary very much, 
also. 



CHAPTER III. 



DRAINAGE REMOVES STAGNANT WATERS, FROM THE 
SURFACE. 

From the preceding chapter it will be seen that a 
drained soil is necessarily more ])orous than an imdrained 
one; consequently, when a rain falls, the water which 
does not immediately flow off from the surface, escapes 
through the pores. On an un drained soil the water be- 
comes stagnant, because the pores are already filled with 
water which has no means of escape other than by evap- 
oration. A hard impervious subsoil prevents it filtering 
through it, and sinking down where the roots will be un- 
injured by it. Furnish under currents for the water, by 
means of drains, and there is no longer a necessity for 
the water to remain above ground, until it becomes changed 
from a healthful to a poisonous substance, by the contin- 
ued action of heat and atmospheric air upon it. 

The amount of water which may be evaporated from the 
surface, under the various influences which cause and con- 
trol this evaporation, as well as the quantity which passes 
downward by means of filtration through the subsoil, or 
into the drains, is a matter of the greatest importance to 
every person engaged in the cultivation of the soil. 

Chemists assert that fully four times the amount of heat 
is required to convert water into vapor, that is required to 
bring it to the boiling from the freezing point. It is no 
uncommon occurrence that rain to the depth of one inch 
falls in the course of a shower. The amount falling on a 
single acre then would amount to 360 hogsheads, and to 
evaporate this amount of water by sunshine, would require 



REMOVAL OF STAGNANT WATERS. 73 

an amount of heat that would convert upward of 1,500 
hogsheads of water from the freezing to the boiling point. 
Every one must know that this evaporation is a very slow 
process, and that while it is going on the soil is kept wet, 
and consequently cold; that vegetation is retarded, if not 
absolutely checked, especially in the early spring time 
Now, if these 1,500 hogsheads of water were carried off 
by drains, this great amount of heat necessary to evaporate 
would be saved, and would be applied to warming the soil. 

Some interesting facts, in relation to this subject, are 
furnished by Cuthbert W. Johnson, in a late number of 
the Farmer's Magazine. Observations Avere made for 
eight successive years, in Hertfordshire, and the mean 
amount of rain which fell, was found to be for each yeai 
26J inches, of which over 11 inches passed into the soil 
and was filtrated, and over 15 inches were evaporated from 
the surface. During the colder months, the amount fil- 
trated was from three to six times as great as the quan- 
tity which passed off in the form of vapor. On the other 
hand, the quantity evaporated during the hottest months, 
was more than fifty times as great as the amount filtrated, 
the latter indeed, not amounting during a whole month to 
the twentieth of an inch. 

The greatest quantity evaporated, in a single year, was 
about 1,800 tuns per acre, and the greatest quantity fil- 
trated was over 1,400. 

The rate of evaporation is influenced by the amount of 
moisture required by the different soils for saturation, and 
the degree of exposure to sun and winds. Even the di- 
rection of the prevailing winds, characterized by the 
moisture they contain, has a material influence. Several 
examples are given, by which it appears that the average 
amount of rain at the places of observation, was about 25 
inches per year ; that the evaporation from icfater exposed 



74 LAND DRAINAGE. 

to both sun and wind, was about 35 inches per year; 
shaded from the sun, but exposed to the wind, it was 
about 23 inches ; from soil, when drained, about 20 inches ; 
and from undrained soil, saturated with water, about 33 
inches, an excess of 13 inches of water to be charged 
against an undrained soil. 

These experiments were made with bare earth, free from 
herbage of any kind. By means of other experiments 
made with plants in pots, it was found that 22 square 
inches of surface of bare mold, evaporates in twelve days, 
1,600 grains of moisture, while a pot of the same size, 
containing a polyanthus, evaporated 5,250 grains; show- 
ing conclusively the great rapidity with which plants carry 
off moisture, and the great error of those who suppose 
that weeds can be of any use in shading the soil. 

Many persons presume that a comparatively small 
amount only of the water which falls in rain, on the sur- 
face of the earth, is retained by the soil, or is evaporated, 
but are of opinion that nearly all finds its way into rivers 
or smaller streams. 

Some writers assert that almost the entire mass of 
water, from rains, is absorbed in supplying springs, and 
other subterranean streams. Marriotte, a celebrated 
French writer, has examined the point, with direct refer- 
ence to whether the quantity of rain water is sufiicient to 
feed all the springs and rivers, and so far from finding a 
deficiency, he concludes upon the amount being so great as 
to render it difiicult to conceive how it is expended. Ac- 
cording to observations which have been made, there falls 
annually upon the surface of the earth, about 19 inches of 
water ; but to render his calculation still more convincing, 
Marriotte supposes only 15, which makes 45 cubic feet per 
square toise, and 238,050,000 cubic feet per square league 
of 2,300 toises, in each direction. Now, the rivers and 



REMOVAL OF STAGNANT WATERS. 75 

springs which feed the Seine, before it arrives at the 
Pont-Royal at Paris, embrace an extent of territory about 
sixty leagues in length, and fifty in breadth, making 3,000 
leagues of superficial area; by which, if 238,050,000, be 
multiplied, he have for the product 714,150,000,000 for the 
cubic feet of water which fall, at the lowest estimate, on 
the above extent of territory. Let us now examine the 
quantity of water annually furnished by the Seine. The 
river above the Pont-Royal, when at its mean hight, is 
400 feet broad and five deep ; when the river is in this 
state, the velocity of the water is estimated at 100 feet 
per minute, taking a mean between the velocity at the sur- 
face and that at the bottom. If the product of 400 feet 
in breath by five in depth, or 2,000 feet square, be multi- 
plied by 100 feet, we shall have 200,000 cubic feet for 
the quantity of water which passes, in a minute, through 
that section of the Seine above the Pont-Royal. The 
quantity in an hour will be 12,000,000; in a day 288,000,- 
000; and in a year 105,120,000,000 cubic feet. This is 
not the seventh part of the water which, as previously 
stated, falls on the extent of country that supplies the 
Seine; the large remainder, not received by the river, 
being taken up by evaporation, beside a prodigious quan- 
tity employed for the nutrition of plants.^ 

Now, if this astounding calculation is true of France, 
what must be the condition of Ohio, and many other states 
where the annual rainfall is about 40 inches, or nearly 
three -times the amount assumed by Marriotte. Think 
for a moment of the entire surface of Ohio, being an- 
nually covered more than a yard deep, with rain water ! 
The autumn rains average about 10 inches, and generally 
thoroughly saturate the earth with water, so that when 

1 Gallery of Nature, page 263. 



76 LAND DRAINAGE. 

the winter precipitations take place they can not infiltrate, 
or penetrate the soil — neither does evaporation take place 
during this period of the year ; so that when spring re- 
turns the task upon the heat from the sun is not only to 
evaporate so much of the 10 inches of spring rain as has 
not flowed off by sui'face drainage, but the 8 inches of the 
winter precipitations, and much of the autumn rains — is 
it any wonder that the soil is not in a workable condition 
much before the middle of May? Think of the spring 
sun being obliged to evaporate about 3,000 hogsheads of 
water from every acre of arable soil ! 

The following table shows the amount of rain and 
(melted) snow which falls at fifteen points, in different 
portions of the State of Ohio : 

Note — The rainfall is stated in inches and hundredths in the col- 
umns of the respective months — thus, at Marietta the rainfall for 
the month of July, is 4.56 inches, or a little more than four and a 
half inches ; for the year at the same place it is nearly 43 inches. 



RExMOYAL OF STAGNANT WATERS. 



77 



flight above 
Atlantic. 


^•o 
% p 


CO 
-.o I- uo c3 


CO 




■a 
a! 


_>> ^ ,^ 5 oi 5 ,y M 3 


ot 3 yrs. 

J. T. "\Varder, for 
1857. 

Moouey & Emer- 
son, mean 13 yrs. 

For the years 1849 
and 1850. 


Winter. 


CO 


7.87 

7-58 

9.06 

8.54 

9.46 

11.15 

8.50 

9.66 

9.1-4 

11.24 
G.41 


10.96 

7.70 

11.89 


Autiiran. 


ro 


16.75 
9.42 

U.32 
9.11 
8.63 
9.90 
8.10 
9.57 

11.85 

10.03 
8.33 


11.63 
8.76 
8.44 


Summer. 




oi>.-(i-)<ojooooos;!» 

■*COC»t^Ot-«-*'00 


d 1- 


OOcJ,-iOC:^rHC0O-*r-< 


CO CO 


Spring. 


5 


r-l{MOC0t-'-'OC0»0-,#r-< 


CO 00 
CO CO rH 


iH c:3 C-i i-^ 


00 CO CO 


The Year. 


■^ 


55.25 

34.33 

44.14 

39.76 

38.88 

46.89 

38.20 

42.97 

48.16 

45.83 
33.51 


41.54 
38.45 
47.25 


December. 


CO 


O0r-,OC5000 ^ -Ji 
OioOSCOi-IOltOOO 000 


04 -* p 
crs CO 1": 


-t<cocococo-s>o-ico -*<oi 


00 Cl -H 


November. 


CO 


7.00 
3.91 
4.31 
3.13 
3.91 
3.48 
2.80 
3.27 

4.07 
3.87 


5. 98 
2.41 
2.76 


October. 


-1* 


■0 -* 1- 00 c-i 01 c -1 

ClOOOciOlCOcJlrH r-W 


3,31 
3.20 
3.10 


OI 


OI OI C-l 01 OI -^O 01 CO c? 01 


September. 


n 


7.50 
2.67 
4.04 
3.02 
2.44 
3.10 
2.40 
3.18 

2.86 
2.35 


2.34 
3.14 
2.58 


August. 


CO 
CO 


-Jluo-.0-*0 0100 c-x 


CO CO -^ 


■M rH CO CI CO -* >J CO . CO 01 


CO ■* CO 


July. 


Ti 


rH CO cr> I- I- C-. Ci 
:.-> CO lO r- CO ^ lO t- 


S CO CI 


CO 


r> 01 CO CO CO r)< -f -)< -*• CO 


-t< rH t- 


June. 


^ 


35 ^ CO CI rH -H 00 
CI C-1 rJ UO CO rH 


d -^ 


-fl 


CO -di -fi CO* lO -^^ -^ »0 lO 


CO rt< CO 


May. 


-Jl 

CO 


3.00 
3.08 
4.92 
3.95 
4.03 
4.55 
3.90 
4.13 

3.60 
3.68 


4.45 

2.81 
2.67 


April. 


-* 


005-*rHTiltoO»Cl com 


CO CO -r*< 
-1< 




-)<rHCOCOCOCOCOCO CO-H 


01 CO -t 


51 arch. 


CO 
CO_ 


2.50 
1.20 
3.15 
3.33 
3.28 
3.93 
2.90 
2.02 

3.22 
1.53 


1.45 

2.92 
5.87 


February. 


2 


1.37 
2.33 
2.85 
2.53 
3.81 
3.51 
2.90 
3.04 

3.88 
1.78 


3.40 
2.42 
2.98 


January. 


"*. 


2.00 
1.71 
2.30 
2.71 
2.45 
3.35 
3.00 
2.82 

2.55 
1.65 


3.58 
2. 02 
4.15 


Longitude. 


'o 


to b b & CO ^ 

CO -^ -^ rH CO CO 
?0 2h tH £m 0-1 rH 


uo 


Latitude. 


b 


11° 35' 

41° 31' 

40° 25' 
39° 30' 
39° 00' 
38° 45' 
39° 25' 







o 
O 

a 

•3 


^„ 



5 


Pi^rrysburg, Wood 
Co. 

Cleveland, Cuyahoga 
Co. 

Urbana, Champaign 
Co. 

Steubenville, Jeffer- 
son Co. 

Gerniantcnvn, Mont- 
gomery Co. 

Cincinnati, Hamil- 
ton Co. 

I'ortsmouth, Scioto 
Co. 

Marietta, Washing- 
ton Co. 

CoLU.'UBUS, Franklin 
Co. 

Granville, Licking 
Co. 

Massillon, Stark Co. 


Springfield, Clark 

Co. 
Hudson, Summit 

Co., 
Lebanon, Warren 

Co. 



78 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



How much of the amount of rain v/hich falls can be 
carried oiFbjthe drains is an all important question; and 
upon the answer to this question depends, in a very great 
degree, the benefit, or disadvantage of underdrainage. 

The following table, copied from observations at Tha- 
rand, in Saxony, Avill serve to show the influence of rains 
on the discharge of water from drains: 





Temperature of air. 


Quantity of Kain 


Discharge of 


Increase com- 








per day, per acre, 


Drain Water, per 














Jlini- 


Maxi- 


in gallous. 


day, per acre, in 


preceding day. 




mum. 


mum. 




gallons. 




1853. 












May 13 


37.4 


54.5 


16091 


1198 


401 


14 


39.2 


59. 




2568 


1370 


June 15 


50. 


71.6 


12105 


101 




" 16 


63. 


69.8 


29967 


1793 


1692 


" 17 


55.4 


66.2 


13212 


5222 


3429 


" 18 


54.5 


68. 


29 


5267 


45 


" 23 


48.2 


64.4 


5167 


2228 


1405 


" 24 


49. 


62.6 


17429 


10S52 


8624 


1854. 












May 14 


45.5 


71. 




38 




" 15 


51. 


65.5 


27754 


103 


65 


" 16 


47.5 


59. 


23324 


9132 


9029 


" 29 


49. 


60. 


27089 


15919 


13851 


June 29 


56.5 


71.6 


49528 


15291 


12280 


30 


50. 


73.4 


43844 


15203 




July 1 


46.4 


59. 


8562 


15708 


505 



In the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. 5, 
page 151, Josiah Parkes, a celebrated land drainer in 
England, publishes a table, embracing observations dur- 
ing a space of eight years, in w^hich he finds the amount 
of water filtrated, that is, passed into the earth and ab- 
sorbed by drains, roots of plants, and retained in the soil, 
to vary from 36 to 57 per cent. Annexed is the table 
prepared by Mr. Parkes : 



REMOVAL OF STAGNANT WATERS. 



79 







Rain. 


Filtration. 


Evaporation. 


Kaiu, per acre. 




Inches. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Tuns. 


18?.fi, 


31. 


56.9 


43.1 


31.39 


1837, 


21.10 


32.9 


67.1 


2137 


1838, 


23.13 


37.0 


63.0 


2.342 


1839, 


31.28 


47.6 


62.4 


3168 


1840, 


21.44 


38.2 


61.8 


2171 


1841, 


32.10 


44.2 


65.8 


3251 


1842, 


26.43 


44.4 


65.6 


2676 


1843, 


26.47 


36.0 


64.0 


2680 


Average, 


26.61 


42.4 


57.6 


2695 



In vol. 20, page 292, of the same journal, Mr. J. 
Bailey Denton, an agricultural engineer, and who is, per- 
haps, oftener quoted than any other agricultural engineer 
at the present day, shows the discharge from drains from 
the 1st of October 1856, to the 31st of May 1857, to have 
varied from less than one fourth, to more than one half 
of the entire rainfall during that period. 

"The following observations on evaporation and filtration,^ for 
which we are indebted to the patient and carefully conducted ex- 
periments of Mr. Charles Charnock, of Holmfield House, near Ferry- 
Bridge (one of the vice-presidents of the Meteorological Society of 
London), present some valuable facts for consideration. ( pp. 80-1. ) 

"In these experiments, the evaporation from saturated soil was 
determined thus: 'A leaden vessel of 13 inches deep, and a foot 
square, was filled to within an inch of the top with soil, and placed 
in the ground, in the same manner as the previous vessel, with a 
pipe level with the surface of the soil to carry off the excess of top- 
water into a receiver. The same quantity of water was then daily 
supplied to this soil as the evaporating dish of column 2 'showed 
was evaporated. The soil was stirred as in the former case, and 
thus represented wet and undrained land.' 

1 Quoted by J. H. Charnock, Esq., Assistant Commissioner under the 
Drainage Acts, in a paper " On Suiting the Depth of Drainage to the Cir- 
cumstances of the Soil," given in the Journal of (he Royal Agrioulturnl So- 
ciety, vol. X, pt. ii, pp. 515 to 518. 



80 



LAND DRAINAGE. 






a fs 



,_, 


o 


..- 


Ul 




c; 


to 


t- 


f3 


W 






O 





'si 



5 -d ° 



3 =s o 

U^ JO 





Fil- 
tra- 
tion. 


o 


Tlirongh the Soil from 
the Drain 3 ft. deep. 


C5 •-; C3 ic -* -J lO o^ t- x i- — 

1- c: (M Ol f'J (N r-i c-l ^ M '- O 


-* 


oooooooooooo 












C-. 






>o 


'3 

c 


When Saturated. 


:ct^-^c?o»-:fr-;r-r-. -^ro 


*"! 




c 






r-'(MrMC-l'N-^?t0^1r-r-i,-< 


:2 








r- 






-* 


•^ 


When Drained. 




'"". 


CO 


ci 




;i4 




OIMOr^N!N<MMOO^O 


•M 


o. 




i: 


Shaded from Sun, 


r-«0(r?iO*»t*'^01^-^0~00 


CI 




a 


CO 


fi 
S 


but exposed to 


t-r-OOCi-^OOC^'MC'r- 


*^ 




K 




Wind. 


T-lrHO^C-lr-ICClNO'li-T-cr-lr-l 


-M 




Exposed to both 


lO -^ C c-l c: f— r- 1^ o J2 '.r -.3 


1- 








t« 


Sun and Wind. 


(MC-lC*3 0?<MiCOOCO'Mr-r^r-l 


31 


n 






00iru--;^wO5:t--O00 


=: 




3 


,H 


On the surface. 


^oicir-icoroi-cio^-cjc-i 


^ 




« 






— ^5 O M IM C-1 'M r? r- rH >1 O 


■'i 




Fil- 
tra- 
tion. 


■O 


Throuffh the Soil from 


•*cooooo ecojcooo 


o 




the Drain 3 ft. deep. 


T-.' d " d o ' <6S-6'6<6 ^ 


-^ 












IM 






>o 


r:3 


When Saturated. 


0>CC>-3:0'MOQM^oyj-^ 








— 


a 




r- rH Ol M :? r)< C-3 (M M -■ r- r- 


?? 




O00OrHC5T(<Ot--i<-MOO 


•-= 1 




o 


-* 


When drained. 




^ \ 


IN 


s 




Ph 




r- C IM — 01 ri CO 1- O-I O Ol O 




s 




^ 


Shaded from sun. 




■r 1 
^ 1 


T-i 






_C3 

g 
fa 


but exposed to 


rHOJC^lOr-t-t^Olt^CO'C— ' 




w 




Wind. 


r-lOrHi-.M<M(MtNr-.r-r-lCI 


^i 


c^ 


Exposed to both 
Sun and Wind. 


OCOCICO-^HXCD-J^CJOOO 


CO 

^•3 


r-r-r-cOlTt<-*'*rOMiMC^« 


-• 








q 




ri 


r-{ 


Ou the surface. 






« 






■NOr5.-<(MrHC0rHfMr-?;O 


-.t 








<D 


U ■: .' 










o 


January 

Februai 

March, 

April, 

May, 

June, 

July, 

August, 

Septenil 

October 

Novemb 

Uecenib 


H 




o.S 


E = 


« ■ p. c -i S rt 0.2 i'-a'B i.-S <" =i' i -d 3 j; 
















II 


(=5 
















o » 


§2 

a 

f5 1 


tion Iro 
■^ed to tl 
u from A 

n from 

Water 

square 
gravel a 
he subs 
lied up, 

averag 
pe Avas 
vliich w 
as regul 
1 was i 
h of th 
iside an 
el abov 
ter fron 
eds, and 
be more 






3 g 


3 >» 

§3 


n 3, IS the Evapora 
•0111 the Sun, but expo 
11 4, is the Evaporatio 
drained or dry land, 
n 5, is the Evaporatio 
urati^d. 

n 6, is the Amount of 
ough the soil, 
leaden vessel, of a foot 
, was put two feet of 
id, so as to represent t 
, and the remainder fi 
of the top, with an 
At the bottom a p 
nveyed all the water \ 
into a bottle, which w 
registered. The vessc 
iiid to witliin an inc 
the level of the soil, i 
th an inch of the vest 
communication of wa 
was kept free from we 
ed, that it might not 
compact. 








Is 






S3 


s^.h 


S'"3'gSs3j:=«^SS-a .o.3-aS tc's - r= i >> 






3t;> 


S'Os2s'°3-"oaJ<">-!^:r:.-M)=r-. a'Sow.-^ 






WO 


OS 3S 


aia 


Col 
when 

Col 
tered 

Int 
feet d 
reous 
the fa 


of so 

whicl 

throu 

tied ; 

the t 

keepi 

alike, 

vent 

The s 

ally s 

dinar 





REMOVAL OF STAGNANT WATERS. 



81 



CO 


Fil- 
tra- 
tion. 


o 


Tlirouc;h tlio Soil from 
the Drain 3 ft. tloej). 


0.96 
0.03 
0.07 
2.99 
0.09 
0.07 
0.16 
0.19 
0.07 
1.69 
0.17 
0.27 


d 


s 
1 


o 
•* 


"3 

CO 

S 






CO 




T-4oi^i-HfO^-^:OCO(Mr-ir- 


When Drained. 


1.22 
0.44 
0.86 
2.98 

o;73 

1.58 
2.74 
2.40 
1.00 
2.40 
0.88 
1.09 


00 

CO 


rt 


C Shaded from sun, 1 


O) Ci t^ 01 'O »c CTj C5 tr. 

iOOOIM001CTOO-#Or-; 


^ 
s 


J* 

2 


Wind. 1 


r-pHr-<rHCOCO(Nf>J*-irHrHi-' 


« 


Exposed to both 
Sun and Wind. 


^Ci-or-<'Mco-^coc;c^cco 

iC 10 Ci iC ^ -* C"- CM — t— 




CI ^1 M ^ -^ -^ Tl' CO >1 C* r^ I-" 




- 


On the surface. 




5* 



C-lOOiOOrHOlfMrH-^rHt-l 


in 

00 
H 


Fil- 
tra- 
tion. 


o 


Throuo-h the Soil from 
the brain 3 ft. deep. 


0.46 
0.30 
0.55 
0.39 
0.27 
0.25 
0.19 
0.37 
0.41 
0.67 
0.28 
0.68 





s 

"3 

o 


o 
■* 


-3 

CO 

a 
p 




-^c:ooo<MCir--*'(MCOC-):« 


CO 




r- 04 ^ CO oi c^^ oi cN- 0^ (N c4 


Wlien Drained. 


1.28 
0.43 
1 .33 
1.05 
1.97 
2.93 
8.30 
4.24 
0.95 
2.-39 
0.73 
2.36 


01 

CO 
:m 


M 


s 

g 


Shaded from Sun, 
but exposed to 
Wind. 


!Mt^r^C5ClOOOO-**t-'00 

o-^C5^c;occt-GOco-*o^ 


CM 


r-iOrHCOi-l01r-.r-.r^r-li-i(N 


(M 


Exposed to both 
Sun and Wind. 


1.53 
0.71 
2.91 
4.79 
2.84 
3.10 
2.80 
2.56 
2.79 
2.77 
2.13 
3.57 



CO 


'3 

M 


- 


On the surface. 


t-t-:co<Nf--*ococooo 


00 


rHOr-'r-lNCOCO-'KrtCO'-ICO 


CO 

I-l 


Fil- 
tra- 
tion. 


..= 


Throush the Soil from 
the brain 3 ft. deep. 


0.46 
0.50 
0.09 

0.04 
0.33 
0.41 
0.30 
0.24 
0.51 
0.00 





CO 


3 

S 
a 
ci 
> 
pa 




-3 

C/j 

a 


When Saturated. 


1.50 
1.11 
1.50 
3.42 
4.86 
4.95 
4.28 
4.G3 
3.96 
2.93 
2.78 
0.93 


r-^ 


When drained. 


0.85 
1.66 
1..58 
0.27 
0.42 
1.20 
2.43 
2.44 
1 .02 
1.17 
1.47 
0.29 





C3 


1 

3 
P 

fa 


Shaded from Sun, 
hut exposed to 
Wind. 


l.OS 
0.88 
1.42 
2.55 
3.85 
3.58 
2.78 
3.14 
3.28 
1.86 
1 80 
0.53 


10 

d 

IN 

d 


(M 


Exposed to both 
Sun and Wind. 


'.I^ C-: r- C» t- CO r- t- Ci t~ X 1^ 


rM ,-. ,M CO lO uO ■<)< -i< -*■ O) 04 


1 


- 


On the surface. 


1.31 

2.22 
2.27 
0.27 
0.42 
1.24 
2.70 
2.85 
1.92 
1.41 
1.98 
0.35 











00 

a 




January, 

February, 

March, 

April, 

May, 

June, 

July, 

August, 

September, 

October, 

November, 

December, 


"3 



82 LAND DRAINAGE. 

" In the first place, it is observable how much greater is the 
amount of evaporation from water than from land, and how near, as 
shown by columns 2 and 5, the evaporation from wet land is to that 
from water itself: hence, the wetter the land the greater the evapo- 
ration, and, as the well-known consequence, the greater its excess 
of coldness. We have a familiar illustration of nature's process in 
this particular, in tlie method often adopted to cool our wine on a 
hot summer's day, by wrapping a wet napkin round the bottle, ami 
exposing it to the full sun : as the moisture from the napkin is evapo- 
rated, the temperature of the wine declines to almost freezing point. 
The school boy's experiment of producing ice before a fire, by in- 
casing the vessel in wet flannel, and adding a portion of salt to the 
water, is a similar example, Avith this additional lesson to the farmer, 
that to apply certain limes to wet land is only increasing the evil. 

"You will then, in the second place, notice how much less the 
evaporation is in the shade than in the sun, and consequently that 
wet land must be the warmest when there is the least sun. From 
which cause, no doubt, arises that too vigorous growth of young 
wheat, so often observable on such land in the winter and spring 
months, which never fails to produce serious injury to the crop in 
all its subsequent stages. And, thirdly, you will remark how com- 
paratively small a proportion of the rain which falls is shown to be 
carried off by filtration. Taking the average of the five years' ex- 
periments, it will be seen that only 4'82 inches outof 24'6 inches of 
rain passed through the land to the depth of three feet. We might, 
therefore, be led at the first glance to infer that land, in general, 
stands less in need of drainage, or may be drained by a less perfect 
system, than is supposed to "be requisite, did not daily experience 
oppose such a conclusion. We must, therefore, endeavor to recon- 
cile this seeming incongruity, and deduce at the same time, from 
the facts disclosed, such data, as may guide us in determining the 
essential requisites to ensure completeness of effect in drainage. 

" Now, although there can be no reason to question the accuracy 
of the experiments on filtration made by Mr. Dickinson, and re- 
corded in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ of Eng- 
land, vol. v, part 1, yet there is very considerable difierence in 
the aggregate result, as shown by them and the account before us. 
' The first important fact disclosed,' says the commentator, page 148, 
'is, that of the whole annual rain, about 42^ per cent., or 11 3-10 
inches out of 26 6-10, have filtered through the soil:' whereas, in 



REMOVAL OF STAGNANT WATERS, 



83 



the Ilolmfield House experiments there is only shown, as we have 
ah-eady said, 4'Sll inches out of 24"6, or about 5 1-10 per cent, against 
42^ per cent. This is certainly a very great and somewhat iri-econ- 
cilable difiference in the result of two experiments made professedly 
to ascertain the same fact. Xow, on referring to the ' Memoirs of 
the Literary and PhilosopMcal Society of Manchester,' vol. v, 
part 2, you will find a paper on rain, evaporation, etc., from the 
pen of the celebrated Dr. John Dalton (the father of the science of 
meteorology), wherein he explains a series of experiments made b}' 
himself and his friend, Mr. Thomas Hoyle, jun., to ascertain the 
amount of evaporation and filtration, and giving the following table 
of results: 





Water through the two Pipes. 


Mean. 


Mean 
llaiu. 


IMean 


ilonthg. 












1796. 


1797. 


1798. 






ration. 


January, 


1.897 


.680 


1.744 


1.450 


2.458 


1.008 


February, - 


1.778 


.918 


1.122 


1.273 


1.801 


.528 


March, - 


.431 


.070 


.335 


.279 


.902 


.623 


April, 


.220 


.295 


.180 


.232 


1.717 


1.485 


May, 


2.027 


2.443 


.010 


1.493 


4.177- 


2.684 


June, 


.171 


.726 




.299 


2.483 


2.184 


July, - 


.153 


.025 




.059 


4.154 


4.095 


August, 






.504 


.168 


3.554 


3.386 


September, 




.976 




.325 


3.279 


2.954 


October, 




.680 




.227 


2.899 


2.672 


November, 




1.044 


1.594 


.879 


2.934 


2.055 


December, 


.200 


3.077 


1.878 


1.718 


3.202 


1.484 




6.877 


10.934 


7.379 


8.402 


33.560 


25.158 


Rain, 


30.629 


38.791 


31.259 








Evaporation, 


23.725 


27.867 


23.862 





" 'Having got a cylindrical vessel of tinned iron,' says the doctor, 
' ten inches in diameter, and three feet deep, there were inserted 
into it two pipes, turned downward, for the water to run off into 
bottles : the one pipe was near the bottom of the vessel, the other 
was an inch from the top. The vessel was filled up, for a few inches, 
with gravel and sand, and all the rest with good fresh soil. Things 
being thus circumstanced, a regular register has been kept of the 
quantity of rain water that ran off from the surface of the earth 
through the upper pipe (while that took place), and also of the 
quantity of that which sank down through the three feet of earth, 
and ran out through the lower pipe. A rain-gauge of the same 



84 LAND DRAINAGE. 

diameter was kept close by, to find the quantity of rain for any cor- 
responding time.' 

"You will notice that the general result of these experiments ac- 
cords, pretty nearly, with that of the Holmdeld account; and yet it 
may be readily conceived that circumstances of situation and strati- 
fication may often occasion as wide a difference in the amount of 
filtration as is shown between Mr. Dickinson's and Mr. Charnock's 
observations. 

"On an examination of the details registered in the account be- 
fore us, it will be evident that the amount of filtration is not exclu- 
sively dependent on the fall of rain; but that a variety of other 
causes combine to affect its pi-oportion. For instance, in ]\Iarch, 
April, May, June, and July, of 1842, the fall of rain was 13G5 inches, 
and the filtration for the same period was only 2 05 inches; while 
in April, 1846, there was 5'97 of rain, and 2-99 of filtration. Simi- 
lar instances are also noticeable in Mr. Dickinson's details. From 
March to October, inclusive, of 1840, a fall of 11 '52 inches of rain 
is recorded, without any filtration ; but in November 1842, the rain 
was 5"77, with 5 inches of filtration. Dr. Dalton's table also shows 
the same variations. The lesson, therefore, derivable from these 
experiments, so far as regards filtration by drains, is one rather of 
a speculative than of a definite character; for, although we are as- 
sured filtration must be secured, we are left with a large and vary- 
ing margin as to the proportion. We must not, however, overlook 
the fiict, that all the registered details show occasionally an amount 
of filtration nearly equal to tlie rain that falls, and, therefore, in de- 
termining the size of pipe to be used, the ready exit of this maxi- 
imim quantity must be provided for." 

Perhaps, the most accurate observations to determine 
the amount of rain carried off by drains, were made in 
Prussia, a,t Tharand, by Dr. Hugo Schober, of the Agri- 
cultural School and Experimental Farm at that place. We 
subjoin the following from the '^ Jahrbuch der Akadamie 
zu Tharand fur 1855." 

" These experiments were made on three several tracts ; two were 
upland, and the other was partly a garden, and partly a meadow. 

" The first tract was an upland experiment field, and contained 
about 3 J acres. 



REMOVAL OF STAGNANT WATERS. 85 

"The second tract was an upland experiment lield, and contained 
about 5J acres. 

"The third tract was part garden and part meadow, and contained 
about 2\ acres. 

"The drain pipe was laid at a depth of four feet in each tract, 
but in the first the drains were three rods apart, while in the other 
two they were two rods only. The fall was well adapted to test the 
workings of the drains ; and, therefore, the minor drains were laid 
with 11 inch pipe, while the sub-main and other drains had 2} inch 

"The first tract had 89 rods of minor, and 16 rods of sub-main, 
making a total of 105 rods per acre. In the 2d and 3d tracts were 
an average of 145 of minor, and 21 rods of sub-main, making an 
aggregate of 166 rods per acre of drains. 

"The operations of these were in the highest degi-ee satisfactory. 
These tracts are situated at an elevation of 714 French feet above 
the Elba, or 1028 above the North Sea. It was hazardous to grow 
winter crops on these tracts, on account of the excessive moisture 
they contained — the crops being liable to winter-kill, but since they 
have been underdrained, are as reliable for winter crop's, as any 
other fields in the kingdom. It was the rule that it was very late in 
the spring, before they were in a condition to be cultivated; but 
since they have been underdrained, they have become workable at 
as early a pei'iod in the spring as any other terrains in the district. 
The crops on these tracts are remarkable for their vigor and even- 
ness. 

" So far as the annexed tabular statements are concerned, it may 
be necessary to state that the quantity of water from the main drain 
of each tract, was daily measured, regularly at 8 o'clock A. M., and 
4 o'clock P. M., and the hourly discharge per acre computed from 
this data. It is true that this method does not give the exact or pre- 
cise amount, yet sufficiently so for all practical purposes. The rain- 
gauge was observed at 8 A. M., and 8 P. M. ; the snow was melted, 
and the resultant water measured in the rain-gauge. 



86 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



AGGREGATE AMOUNT OF RAIN PKR ACRE ; ALSO, THE AGGREGATE AMOUNT OF 
WATER DISCHARGED BY THE DRAINS J ALSO THE PER CENT. OF RAIN WATER 
DISCHARGED BY DRAINS. 









Per cunt, of 




Amount of Eain. 


Discharge by Drains. 


Kain water 




Galls. 


Galls. 


discliarged. 


1853. 








February, 


57381.2 


26932.6 


46 


March, 


40840.4 


71025.5 


173 


April, - - - 
May, - 


153486.2 


124659.7 


80 


91546.2 


53297. 


58 


Juno, - . - 


173896, 


69922.8 


40 


July, - 


123949.4 


40666.3 


32 


August, - - - 


85667.2 


1014. 


1 


September, - 


136271.8 


20588.6 


15 


October, - - - 


73324.9 


17073.9 


27 


November, - 


44712.8 


3706.8 


8 


December, 


168S8.1 


1224.7 


7 


1854. 








January, 


31142. 


10699.9 


34 


February, 


78449.8 


46381.6 


59 


March, 


61160.6 


102612.9 


167 


April, . - - 


81828. 


65379.4 


67 


May, - - - 


215545.9 


91680.9 


42 


June, - . - 


266136.7 


74928.4 


28 


July, - 


225024.4 


188964.7 


83 


August, - - - 


174698.3 


19926.1 


11 


September, - 


30159.4 


1536.8 


5 


October, - - - 


48907.8 


873.2 


1 


November,' - 


104751.5 


967.3 


0.9 


December, 


204106. 


185729.2 


90 


1855. 








January, 


46678.7 


61420.9 


131 


Aggregate from Feb. 1, 








'53, to Jan. 31, '54, 


1029656.6 


440802.5 




rcb.l,'54,to Jan.31,'55, 


1537694.3 


830400.8 





There are three instances only in Avhich the drains dis- 
charge more water during the month than the amount of" 
rain which fell during the same period ; but the excess of 
discharge is readily explained ; by reference to the table 
it will be observed that in each instance, during the month 
previous, a greater amount of rain fell than during the 
month in which the discharge was excessive. During the 
year commencing February 1, 1853, and ending January 
81, 1854, the proportion of water discharged by the drains 
was 42 per cent, of the amount of rain ; for the year end 



REMOVAL OF STAGNANT WATERS. 



87 



ing January 31, 1855, the drainage amounted to 55 per 
cent., or an average for the two years of 48*5 per cent. 



AVERAGE DISCHAKGE PER HOUR, PER ACRE, OF WATER FROM THE DRAINS. 





First Tract. 


Second Tract. 


Thii-a Tract. 




Galls. 


Galls. 


Galls. 


1853. 








February, - - . 


23.4 


26.6 


51.3 


March, - - - . 


59.4 


66.8 


161.3 


April, - - . . 


191.4 


171.5 


156.4 


May, - - . . 


47.1 


51.9 


115.8 


June, - - - - 


62.7 


81.5 


147.1 


July, - - . . 


45.8 


46.8 


71.2 


August, - . - 


.5 


1.4 


2.1 


September, - . . 


22.4 


19.6 


43.6 


October, - . _ 


19.7 


16.7 


32.4 


November, - - - 




2.9 


12.5 


December, - - - 





.5 


4.4 


1854. 








January, ... 


12.3 ' 


9.7 


21. 


February, - - . 


58.6 


47.4 


100.9 


March, - . - - 


122.2 


105.7 


185.8 


April, . - - - 


57.6 


89.9 


83.4 


May, . - - . 


70.9 


83.1 


213. 


June, - - - - 


42.9 


94.4 


174.8 


July, .... 


82.1 


270.2 


409. 


August, ... 


2.4 


22.3 


55.6 


September, ... 


0.4 


0.8 


5.1 


October, . - . 






3.5 


November, . . - 


0.1 


0.2 


.3.6 


December, ... 


265.1 


199.2 


283.9 


1855. 








January, . . - 


68.0 


91.0 


88.5 


Average from Feb. 1, '53, to 








Jan. 31, '54, 


45.6 


46.8 


77.5 


Average from Feb. 1, '54, to 








Jan. 31, '65, 


64.2 


83.8 


134.1 


Excess in '54, - 


18.6 


37.0 


56.6 



In the second table we find that the largest quantity 
discharged in an hour from an acre was 409 gallons ; this 
would amount to about 156 hogsheads in 24 hours; there- 
fore it would require two and about one third days to drain 
a rainfall of one inch, or of 360 hogsheads per acre. 
The entire amount of the 10 inches of spring rains in 
Ohio wuuld then be carried off by the drains in about 24 



88 • LAND DRAINAGE. 

days, provided none of it escaped by surface drainage or 
evaporation; but at least one half of the amount precip- 
itated escapes by these means ; it is, therefore, very cer- 
tain that the drains would remove the remainder in less 
than twelve days. 

How long Avould evaporation require to remove this 
amount of water? 

It is well known that evaporation commences whenever 
the thermometer is above 32° F. by means of solar heat, 
but the Avinds very often evaporate or '' dry up " more 
moisture than the warmest summer day. 

The evaporation from a reservoir surface at Baltimore, 
during the summer months, was assumed by Colonel Abert 
to be to the quantity of :cain as two to one. 

Dr. Holyoke assigns the annual quantity evaporated at 
Salem, Mass., at 56 inches; and Colonel Abert quotes 
several authorities at Cambridge, Mass., stating the quan- 
tity at 56 inches. These facts are given by Mr. Blodget, 
and also the table below : 

QUANTITY OF WATER EVAPORATED, IN INCHES, VERTICAL DEPTH. 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. J'y- Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 
Whitehaven, Eng., 

meanofGyrs. 0.88 1.04 1.77 2.54 4.14 4.54 4.20 3.40 3.12 1.93 1.32 1.09 30.03 
Ogdensburg, N. Y., 

1 yr., 1.C5 0.83 2.07 1.63 7.10 6.74 7.79 5.41 7.40 3.95 3.66 1.15 49.37 

Syracuse, N. Y., 1 
■yr., 0.07 1.48 2.24 3.42 7.31 7.G0 9.08 6.85 5.33 3.02 1.33 1.86 50.20 

The quantity for Whitehaven, England, is reported by 
J. F. Miller. It was very carefully observed, from 1843 
to 1848 — the evaporation being from a copper vessel, pro- 
tected from rain. The district is one of the Avettest of 
England — the mean quantity of rain, for the same time, 
having been 45*25 inches.^ 

If, then, the atmosphere of Ohio has the evaporating 
capacity of that of Ogdensburg, N. Y., it would require 

1 French ou Farm Drainage. 



REMOVAL OF STAGNANT WATERS. 89 

the entire months of March, April and May to evaporate 
the amount of spring rains — that is, if none of the pre- 
cipitation escaped by infiltration or surface drainage ; or, 
in other words, underdrains.will accomplish in 24 days the 
same removal of water for. which evaporation requires 92 
days. 

A few of the more obvious advantages of draining over 
evaporation, may be briefly enumerated thus : 

In undrained ground the season of growth is shortened 
by the time occupied in evaporation, always a long and 
tedious process. In drained lands, on the contrary, much 
time is gained, not only by permitting an earlier working, 
but in the better adaptation of the ground to germination. 
In undrained ground the water, passing off in the form of 
vapor, carries with it a certain quantity of the latent heat 
of the earth, and this heat is in proportion to the amount 
of vapor formed. Thus, the land is left colder than it 
was when covered or saturated with water, and by so much 
germination is retarded. But in land properly drained 
the water passes off without being converted into vapor. 
The temperature of the land at the surface remains the 
same, and the temperature of the subsoil, through which 
the water passes, becomes as warm as the surface. Thus 
the depth of heated earth is increased, and the surface is 
less liable to be affected by change of temperature. 

In evaporation, organic and mineral matters, in the 
form of gases, pass off with the vapor, thus leaving the 
ground poorer; while in filtration, accomplished by drain- 
ing, these substances become fixed in the earth for the 
nourishment of the future plant. 

Undrained lands suffer from hot and dry weather. For, 
though there may be water within a few inches of the sur- 
face, the ground becomes so compact and baked that it is 
not sufiiciently porous to draw up moisture. Drained land, 
9 



90 LAND DRAINAGE. 

on the other hand, is open to the action of the atmosphere 
to a great extent ; it becomes finely comminuted, the hard 
pans and stiff clays are broken up and rendered sufficiently 
porous to imbibe water from, below ; and also, having a 
greater surface exposed to the air, it receives more moist- 
ure in the form of dew. 

In winter and spring, wet land heaves up, under the 
influence of frost and beat, thus exposing such grains as 
have been planted directly to the weather ; for this reason 
wheat and other grains are liable to winter-kill, and, in- 
stead of them, spring up wild grasses and noxious weeds. 
Draining, to a great extent, prevents this. When land is 
dry, the variations it experiences under unequal tempera- 
tures are very slight, compared with the changes produced 
by the same variations on wet land. The result of ex- 
treme heat and extreme cold is to increase the bulk of 
water to a considerable extent. This expansion on the 
surface of the ground is seen in little hillocks, with cracks 
running in all directions. By the evaporation of moisture 
from this frozen ground, many particles of earth are left 
unsupported and fall, thus leaving the tender roots ex- 
posed to the weather when protection is most needed. 

Messrs. "VVaege and Von Mollendorf, of Gorlitz, Prussia, 
have published, iif the Zeitschrift fur Drainirung, No. 23, 
1855, a series of observations on the discharge of drain 
water from different kinds of soil. , They employed the 
Dalton apparatus for percolation. The experimental 
boxes were filled to the depth of four feet of soils taken 
from fields in Avhich drains were placed at the same depth. 
These boxes contained respectively : 

I. Box No. 1, a clay soil, consisting of 88 per cent, of 
clay and 12 per cent, of sand; box No. 2, loamy soil, 41-7 
per cent, of clay, humus, etc., 58*3 per cent, sand; box 



REMOVAL OF STAGNANT WATERS. 91 

No. 3, a loamy sand soil, 19-2 per cent, of clay, humus, 
etc., 80' 8 per cent. sand. 

II. The soil in the system A, of the Moliolz estates, is 
loamy soil, corresponding to that of box No. 2 ; in the 
system B, loamy sand soil, corresponding to that of box 
No. 3. 

III, The plan of Kuestner, on the field of Gorlitz. The 
drains have, with a very cloddy (much cut) ground, a fall 
of 18-1 inches to 10»perches. They are 4 feet deep and 
4 perches apart. The soil consists alternately of strata 
of clay, of loam and of gravel, and corresponds on an 
average with No. 3 of the experimental boxes. 

The corresponding observations of the depth of rain 
were made at Gorlitz. 

The monthly average, derived from daily observations, 
for the meteorological year 1854 (Dec. 1, 1853 — Dec. 1, 
1854), are given in the first table on pp. 92-3. 

Influence of the kind of soil on the quantity of drained 
ivater. — In confirmation of former observations the loamy 
soil drained the largest amount of water of the three dif- 
ferent kinds of soil employed in the Gorlitz experimental 
boxes. The results at Tharand were similar. The mouth 
of the main drain of the third part of the estate at that 
place — being loamy soil — discharged, in monthly average, 
309*9 cans per acre per hour; while the mouths of the 
first and second division — in clay soil — yielded only 182*4 
and 187*3 cans, respectively. The drain water, according 
to the measurements in the apparatus at Gorlitz, amounts 
to 15 per cent, of rain water in the clay soil, and 33*4 per 
cent, in the loamy soil. Supposing the falls, etc., to be 
equal, the same capacity of pipes would suffice for about 
two acres of clay soil that is required for one acre of 
loamy soil (also loamy sand soil). 



92 



LAND DRAINAGE. 







Winter. 




Spring. 


















Dec. 


Jan. 


Fol). 


Mar. 


Ap'l. 


May. 


Kain fall in Prussian cubic inches ou 1 














sq. foot Prussian, at Gorlitz, 


61.74 


1S1.15 


376.43 


180.50 


138.02 


411.57 


Drain water in Prussian cubic inches, 














on 1 Prussian sq. foot land : 














I. Gorlitz, n, clay soil, - 
experimental -< 2, loam soil, 
boxes. (J), loamy sand soil, 


— 


— 


168.8 


115.0 


— 


3.G 


— 


— 


9.5 


299.6 


30.6 


9.G 


— 


— 


3.4 


295.2 


16.7 


6.8 


II. Moholz, ( A, loam soil. 


35.78 


02.42 


333.13 


319..34 


68.49 


33.67 


(B, loamy sand soil, 


29.59 


51.27 


292.29 


297.86 


76.54 


43.69 


III. Kuestner's plan : clay, loam, sand, 


— 


— 


_ 


— 


.y- 





Average of the si.x Silesi.an stations, 


13.07 


22.74 


161.42 


205.58 


28.47 


19.47 


Drain water in per cent, of rain : 




• 










I. Gorlitz, n, clay soil, 


— 




40.36 


04.21 


— 


0.87 


experimental ^ 2, loauisoil, - 


— 


— 


2.5 


165.08 


22.17 


2.33 


boxes. (^3, loamy sand soil, 


— 


. — 


0.9 


1()3.55 


12.10 


1.65 


II. Moholz, 1 A, loam soil, - 

\ B, loamy sand soil. 


57.95 


34.46 


88.5 


176.02 


49.62 


8.18 


47.93 


28.3 


77.65 


165.02 


55.46 


10.61 


III. Knestner's plan : clay, loam, sand. 


— 

















Average of the six Silesian stations, 


21.17 


12.25 


43.78 


147.14 


27.87 


4.73 



Influence of the season on the discharge of water. ^ — 
These observations are in harmony with the former ob- 
servations at Tharand, and also agree with the average of 
the Silesian stations, inasmuch as the drains in spring 
flow strongest, compared with the quantity of rain water 
(44-3 per cent, of the rain water). The least discharge 
took place, on an average, in fall — thus deviating from 
former observations at the Gorlitz boxes, and agreeing 



1 The discharge is, according to John, changed according to the time of 
day. A comparison of the observations made, three times a day, by Gropp, 
at Isterbies, 1852, resulted as follows : 





Number of 


Morning. 


Noon. 


Evening. 




Observa- 


Prussian 


Prussian 


Prussian 




tions. 


quarts. 


quarts. 


quarts. 


February, - 


29 


1848 


1828 


1810 


March, 


31 


1163 


1160 


1149 


April, 


30 


826 


821 


823 


May, - - - 


31 


1205 


12U6 


1193 


June, 


30 


692 


537 


532 


July (first half), - 


15 


131-2 


12 3-5 


12 3-5 


In the 5 1-2 months, 


16G 


5647 1-2 


5564 3-5 


5519 3-5 



Average, 



5577 quarts of drain water. 



REMOVAL OF STAGNANT WATERS. 



93 











5 




cc 


^ 




Slimmer. 




Fall. 




"2 


S 

■-1 


.- 


Yeak 


Juue. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


1854. 


G57.74 


472.53 


611..37 


116.59 


120.68 


375.34 


619.32 


730.09 


1741.64 


612.61 


3703.60 


9.G 


153.8 


80.9 






30.9 


168.8 


119.5 


244.3 


.30.9 


563.5 


516.9 


188.0 


112.3 


6.2 


2.3 


60.2 


9.5 


339.8 


817.8 


68.7 


1235.8 


360.4 


266.0 


70.6 


— 


1.3 


20.1 


3.4 


318.7 


697.0 


27.4 


1046.5 


140.52 


311.27 


143.61 


72.86 


29.54 


136.20 


431.33 


431.50 


505.40 


238.60 


1686.83 


134.22 


337.85 


216.30 


107.26 


42.95 


189.95 


373.15 


418.09 


688.37 


340.16 


1819.77 


9.39 


37.94 


■2.2C, 


0.09 


— 


0.69 


— 


— 


49.59 


0.7S 


— 


195.17 


215.91 


104.33 


31.07 


12.68 


74.01 


164.36 


323.52 


515.41 


117.76 


1270.5 


1.46 


32.55 


1'3.23 


_ 





8.23 


30.16 


16.37 


14.0 


5.0 


15.0 


78.59 


39.91 


18.37 


5.33 


1.91 


16.04 


1.53 


46.55 


47.0 


11.2 


33.4 


r)4.79 


56.29 


11.55 





1.08 


6.95 


0.55 


43.66 


40.0 


4.4 


28.3 


21.3G 


65.87 


23.49 


62.49 


24.48 


36.29 


69.65 


58.42 


34.2 


38.9 


45.0 


20.41 


71.50 


35.38 


92. 


35.59 


50.01 


60.28 


57.26 


39.5 


55.5 


49.2 


1.43 


8.03 


0.37 


0.08 





0.18 


— 


— 


2.8 


0.1 





29.67 


45.69 


17.06 


26.65 


10.51 


19.71 


32.43 


44.32 


29.6 


19.2 


34.3 



with the observations at Tharancl. Quite considerable 
deviations, however, occur sometimes, which can be ex- 
plained only by continued and increased observations. 

Time in tvhich drain water arrives at the pipes in vari- 
ous kinds of soil. — The following table, from the Gorlitz 
boxes, is confirmed by numerous experiments : 





No. 
of rain- 
days. 


Tlio Drains discharged. 


The Drains 


were humid. 




No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 


Aver- 
age No. 
of days. 


No. 1. 


No. 2 


No. 3. 


Aver- 
age No. 
of days. 


December, 


























— 


January, 
February, 


22 


2 


4 


4 


3 


3 


5 


3 


4 


March, 


17 


6 


11 


11 


9 


2 


2 


3 


2 


April, 
May, 
June, 


7 
13 
20 


2 
5 


3 
3 

26 


2 

4 

22 


2 
3 

18 


1 

9 
22 


3 

6 
3 


2 

8 
7 


2 

8 

11 


July, 


9 


15 


16 


16 


16 


9 


5 


8 


7 


August, 
September, 


21 
9 


10 


12 
3 


8 


10 

1 


4 

4 


2 


2 
2 


2 


October, 


14 


— 


1 


— 


— 


— 


1 


— 


— 


November, 


21 


9 


16 


9 


11 


7 


5 


8 


7 


In 1854, 


153 


49 


95 


76 


73 


61 


32 


41 


45 


Mav to Nov. 




















1853, 


104 


84 


106 


118 


103 


53 


27 


10 


30 



04 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



There were discharged, during 166 observations in the 
iaorning, 127 0-10 quarts more than in the evening; these 
observations show a discharge for the 166 days greater, 
by 184,176 quarts, or 6,821 cubic feet, than the evening 
observations. 

This disproportion, according to John, must be ex- 
plained partly by the smaller amount of evaporation dur- 
ing the night, and partly by the fact that the rainfall during 
the day (which, perhaps, exerts a greater influence on the 
discharge of water from the drain pipes tho next morning 
than the imniediately preceding night rain), seems to ex- 
ceed the rainfall during the night (at Crefeld the ratio 
of night rain to the day rain was as 159*28 to 181"6 in 
the years 1850-'54). The influence of the time of day 
is to be taken in consideration for the obvervations of the 
quantities of drain water ; if an observation for three 
times a day can not be made, the noon time should be 
preferred, as its results come nearest to the average, ac- 
cording to the table. 

In the clay soil No. 1, as compared with the sand soil 
No. 2, and the loamy sand soil No. 3, the drain was flow- 
ing the least number of days, but kept humid the longest. 

Condition of moisture of tlie soil. — With regard to the 
question, whether draining might not dry too much ; ex- 
periments were made again in the boxes, in a depth of 
two feet, at a time when the drains had just ceased to 
carry away water. The contents of moisture amounted to: 





In clay soil. 
Per cent. 


In loam soil. 
Per cent. 


In loamy 
sand soil. 
Per cent. 


In the average 
of the three 
kinds of soil. 


On May 6, 1854, - 
Popt. 5, 1854, - 
May and Aug., 1853, 
Oct. and Nov., 1853, 


18.6 
18.5 
20.5 
20.5 


20. 
19. 
19.3 
18.5 


20.9 
19.5 
15.6 
14. 


19.8 
19. 
18.5 
17.6 



REMOVAL OP STAGNANT WATERS. 95 

Permanent moisture lias, therefore, in heavy soil, dimin- 
ished since 1853, perhaps owing to an increase of drying 
crevices, and it has considerably increased in lighter soil, 
perhaps owing to its having become more compact. 

The above-mentioned V. 3Iollend'orf has, beside, pub- 
lished a summary comparison of the quantities of rain and 
drain water according to German and English observations, 
with the remark that the German measurements (which 
are not specified), that served for computation, had been 
made at Tharand (Saxony), Gorlitz, Moholz, Grosskrau- 
scha, Deutsch-Paulsdorf, Ullersdorf (all of them in Silesia), 
and at Suisheim (Baden). — {Wilda, Centralblatt, 1856, 
I, No. 14.) See table at top of pp. 96-7. 

These figures, on the Avhole, confirm the conclusions 
drawn from the investigations made in common with 
Waege; the difference between the discharge of drain 
water of loam soil and loamy sand soil, and that of clay 
soil, is found to be less considerable. 

The atmospheric precipitations of a large aggregate of 
ponds, ditches, and other works, on a surface of 1.43 geo- 
graphical square miles, near Leipsic, are collected and 
employed as spring Avater in the mining districts. The 
water is measured every week by the rotations of the 
water Avheel. If we compare the discharge of water com- 
puted therefrom, with the rains from 1830-51, the result 
shows that there has been an annual average (during these 
22 years) of rain equal to 24-55 Prussian inches. 

In spring, 61 '8 per cent. (64'73.) 
" sumnTer, 31 'l " (36 -82.) 
" fall, 39-5 " (27-84.) 

" winter, 76-7 " (37-4.) 



In the year, 47-7 per cent. (41-64.) 
Observation. — The figurea in parentheses — average per cent, of 
the rain -n-ater discharge bv drains accordins to German observation. 



96 



LAND DRAINAGE. 







Spr 


ng- 




Suni- 




Mar. 


Ap'l. 


May. 


Total. 


Juue. 


July. 


A. Clay Son- 














German observations. 














llainfall, - - Prussianjnches, 


1.31 


2.20 


3.22 


6.73 


4.48 


3.97 


Discharged drain water, '' " 


1.87 


1.41 


0.97 


4.25 


0.99 


1.08 


Drain water, per cent, of rainfall, 


142.7 


G2.3 


30.2 


63.2 


22.1 


42.3 


B. Loam Soil. 














a. English observations. 














Eainfall, - - Prussian inches. 


1..57 


1.41 


1.81 


4.79 


2.15 


2.22 


Drain water, - - " " 


1.05 


0.29 


0.11 


1.45 


0.04 


o!o4 


Drain water, per cent, of rainfall, 


66.G 


21. 


5.9 • 


30.3 


1.8 


1.9 


6. German observations. 


• 












Rainfall, - - Prussian inches, 


1.35 


l.Sl 


3.05 


0.21 


4.25 


3.73 


Drain water, - - " " 


2.34: 


1.3 


1.61 


5.25 


1.77 


2.27 


Drain water, per cent, of rainfall, 


173.3 


71.S 


52.8 


84.5 


41.0 


03.5 


C. Loamy Sand Soil. 














German observations. 














Rainfall, - - Prussian inches, 


1.35 


1.10 


2.08 


5.19 


3.7 


3.41 


Drain water, - - " " 


1.23 


0.51 


0.51 


2.25 


1.38 


2.07 


Drain water, per cent, of rainfall. 


91.1 


44. 


19. 


43.4 


37.3 


00.7 


D. Limy Soil. 














English observations. 














Rainfall, - - I'russian inches. 








— 


— 


— 


— 


Drain water, - " " 


— 


_ 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Drain water, per cent, of rainfall. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Average from German ol)servations : 














Rainfallj - - Prussian inches. 


1.34 


1.72 


2.98 


6.04 


4.14 


3.7 


Drain w^ter, - - " " 


1.81 


1.07 


1.03 


3.91 


1.71 


2.01 


Drain water, per cent, of rainfall. 


135. 


62.2 


34.57 


64.73 


41.3 


.59.9 



The excess of drain water over rain water prevailing in 
the German observations, in the first spring month, or 
March, is probably caused by the circumstances that this 
month must remove the meteorical precipitations of the 
winter months, collected in the form of ice and snow ; a cir- 
cumstance which does not occur in England with its milder 
winter. The difference between the discharge of the 
drains in England and Germany during the summer is to 
be accounted for by the prevalence of the summer rains 
in the German climate ; the fact that autumn furnishes 
more rain in England than in Germany, is in consequence 
of the prevalence of the fall rains in the English climate, 
and of the cloudy quality of its fall atmosphere, which 
retards evaporation. 



llExMOVAL OF STAGNANT WATERS. 



mer. 


Fall. 


Winter. 


Total 
Year. 


Aug. 


Total. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Total. 


Dec. 


Jau. 


Feb. 


Total. 


3..';2 
0.67 
19. 

2.36 
0.03 
1.5 

3.75 
1.04 

27.7 

3.83 
0.86 
22.5 

3.7 
0.85 
23. 


11.97 
3.34 
27.9 

6 73 
0.11 
1.7 

11.73 
5.18 
44.2 

10.94 

4.31 

39.4 

11. .54 
4.26 
30.82 


2.01 
0.37 
18.4 

2.56 
0.36 
14. 

2. 

0.52 
26. 

2.12 
0,63 
29.7 

2.04 
0.51 
25. 


1.54 
0.63 
40.9 

2.74 
1.36 
49.6 

1.33 
0.53 
39.9 

1.31 

0.65 

49.6 

1.4 
0.0 
42.57 


1.58 
0.38 
24. 

3.73 
3.16 
84.9 

1.81 
0..39 
21.5 

1..59 
0.10 
10.1 

1.60 
0.31 
18.7 


5.13 
1..38 

26.9 

9.03 
4.88 
54.1 

5.14 
1.44 

28. 

5.02 
1.44 

28.7 

5.1 
1.42 

27.84 


2.48 
1.24 
50. 

1.68 
1.76 
104.6 

3.06 
2. 

65!7 

2.42 
0.55 
22.7 

2.05 

1.27 

47.54 


1.21 
0.24 

19.8 

1.79 
1.26 
70.4 

1.21 
0.43 
35.5 

1.12 

0. 

0. 

1.18 
0.22 
18.64 


1.95 
1.02 
52.3 

1.92 
1.5 

78.5 

1.98 

0.9 

45.4 

1.98 
0.43 
21.7 

1.97 
0.78 
39.6 


5.64 
2.5 
44.3 

5.39 
4.52 
83.9 

6.25 
3.34 
53.4 

5.52 
0.98 
17.7 

5.8 
2.27 
37.4 


29.47 
11.47 
38.9 

25.94 
10.96 
42.3 

29.33 
15.21 
51.9 

26.07 

8.98 

33.7 

23.88 
4.68 
19.6 

28.48 
11.80 
41.04 



10 



CHAPTER IV. 



DRAINAGE REMOVES SURPLUS WATER FROM UNDER 
THE SURFACE. 

There is a body of stagnant water below the surface 
of the ground, as those who work clayey soils will not 
have failed to observe. This water sometimes settles in 
the bottom of the furrows, even when the surface of the 
land was sufficiently dry to work. In porous soils this 
body lies at a great depth, but in clayey soils usually 
within a foot or two of the surface, and is known among 
drainers as the "water line." This body of water not 
only saturates the soil, and consequently excludes the air, 
whose presence, on a previous page, we have shown to be 
very necessary, but it keeps the soil cold and retards veg- 
etation. In the words of Dr. Hobbs, quoted by Judge 
French, in his admirable treatise on "Farm Drainage," 
"A knowledge of the depth to which this water table 
should be removed, and of the means of removing it, con- 
stitutes the science of draining." 

In the annexed engraving (Fig. 5), suppose the right- 
hand portion, 1, to represent a loamy soil, and the left- 
hand portion, 2, a heavy clayey soil. If in the clayey 
soil a drain be sunk to 7,5, the water table will ordinarily 
assume the direction 3,8,7, when the drain commences to 
act, leaving that portion of the soil indicated by the lighter 
shade, 2,3,8,7, in good workable condition, and ready to 
supply nutriment to the roots of plants; while in a loamy 
soil the direction will be 5.4.f. In other words, the table 
at 3 will not sink to a level with 7 as rapidly as from 1 
to 5. Hence, in clayey soils the drains should either be 

(98) 



DKAINAGE REMOVES SURPLUS AVATER. 



90 



deeper or closer together, to effect tlie same object as in 
loamy soils. 

This ground water arises from 
several causes, viz : There may 
be an impermeable or impervious 
strata at a comparative short depth 
from the surface, which will not 
permit the waters from the rains 
to pass through it, as at 5, Fig. 6. 
Suppose the contour of the sur- 
face of a field to be represented 
by A, B, C, D, Fig. 6, and 5 is a 
stratum of impervious clay; 4, a 
stratum of ^'•hard pan" or blue 
clay ; and 3 a stratum of com- 
pact white clay, resting on a stra- 
tum, 2, of sand or gravel; and 
this last on an impervious bed, 1. 
It is very evident that all the 
rains falling from A to C will col- 
lect from the surface at B, while 
that which penetrates the soil will 
flow along the top of the stratum, 
5, until it reaches the lowest point 
under B; consequently, at B, 
there will be a swamp or morass. 
Even should the surface Avater 





from the rain be evaporated, the swamp would still be sup- 



100 LAND DRAINAGE. 

plied Avith writer inherent in the strata from A to C. A 
Avell sunk at C into the gravel at 7 would be well supplied 
with water, because 2, being a water bearing stratum, 
would receive its supply from below A, and 5, being an 
impervious stratum, would not permit water to escape atB; 
but a well sunk at B, into the stratum 2, would seriously 
affect the well at C, and perhaps "dry it up;" at E there 
would be springs, swamp or morass, according to the na- 
ture of the ground. In this case, the ground water, or 
tvater of pressure, as Judge French terms it. is that which 
is found in strata 4 and 5. 

There may be a nice distinction in law, and, perhaps, 
in very scientific treatises on drainage, between ground 
Avater and springs; yet, for all practical purposes, so far 
as drainage is concerned, they amount to about the same 
thing — for the reason that the great object of drainage is 
to cut off this supply of superabundant subterranean wa- 
ter — derived originally, no doubt, from the same source. 
And the only difference which really can exist is this, viz : 
a spring is a body of subterranean water, collected in a 
reservoir, and flowing from thence in a larger or smaller 
stream ; while the ground water is a body of subterranean 
water diffused throughout the strata, and, when collected 
and discharged by drains, is as much spring water as if 
nature herself discharged it in the form of a regular 
spring. 

The strata beneath the soil are not always conformable 
to the surface, as those in Fig. 6, but frequently lie nearly 
level with the horizon, or making but a small angle Avith 
it, while the surface itself may be full of undulations. In 
illustration of the formation of springs and the action of 
rain on such a district or region of country as represented 
by Fig. 7, we copy from Morto7i's Cyclopedia of Agricul- 
ture : 



DRAINAGE REMOVES SURPLUS WATER. 101 

. " Wlien rain falls on a tract of country, part of it flows over the 
surface, and makes its escape by the numerous natural and artificial 
courses which may exist, while another portion is absorbed by the 
soil and the porous strata which lie under it. 

" Let the following diagram represent such a tract of country, and 



let the dai'k portions repi'esent clay or other impervious strata, while 
the lighter portions represent layers of gravel, sand or chalk, permit- 
ting a free passage to water. 

" When rain falls in such a district, after sinking through the sur- 
face layer (represented in the diagram by a narrow band), it reaches 
the stratified layers beneath. Through these it still further sinks, 
if they are porous, until it reaches some impervious stratum, Avhich 
arrests its directly downward course, and compels it to find its way 
along its upper surface. Thus, the rain which falls on the space 
represented between 2 and 4, is compelled, by the impervious strata, 
to flow toward 3. Here it is at once absorbed, but is again immedi- 
ately arrested by the impervious layer 5 ; it is, therefore, compelled 
to pass through the porous stratum 3, along the surfoce of 5 to 1, 
where it pours forth in a fountain, or forms a morass or swamp, pro 
^ortionate in size or extent to the tract of country between 2 and 4, 
or the quantity of rain which falls upon it. In such a case as is 
here represented it will be obvious that the spring may often be at 
a great distance from the district from which it derives its supplies ; 
and this accounts for the fact, that drainage works on a large scale 
sometimes materially lessen the supply of water at places remote 
from the scene of operations. 

"In the instance given above, the water forming the spring is rep- 
resented as gaining access to the porous stratum, at a point where 
it crops out from beneath an impervious one, and as passing along 
to its point of discharge at a considerable depth, and under several 
layers of various characters. Sometimes, in an undulating country, 
large tracts may rest immediately upon some highly porous stratum, 
rendering the necessity for draining less apparent; while the adjoin- 
ing parts of the country may be full of springs and marshes, arising 



102 LAND DRAINAGE. 

partly from the rain itself, which falls in these latter districts, being 
unable to find a way of escape, and partly from the natural drainage 
of the more porous soils adjoining being discharged upon it. 

"Again : the higher parts of hilly ground are sometimes composed 
of very porous and absorbent strata (], 2, 3, Fig. 8), Avhile the lower 
portions, 4, 5, are more impervious, the soil and subsoil being of a 
very stiff and retentive description. In this case, the Avater collected 
by the porous layers is prevented from finding a ready exit, when it 
reaches the impervious layers, by the stiff surface soil. The water 
is by this means dammed up, in some measure, and acquires a con- 
siderable degree of pressure, and, forcing itself to the day at various 
places, it forms those extensive "weeping" banks, as at 6, 6, 7, which 
have such an injurious effect upon many of our mountain pastures. 
This was the form of spring or swamp, to the removal of which Elk- 
ington principally turned his attention; and the following diagram, 
taken from a description of his system of draining, will explain the 
stratification and springs referred to more clearly : 




Fig. 8, although copied from Morton\s Cyclopedia of 
Agriculture, was, in all probability, an ideal section, yet 
it is a correct representation of a portion of the country 
betAveen Canton and Massillon, in Stark county. About 
three miles west of Canton the railroad passes through 
what is familiarly known in the locality as Buck's Hill, 
composed of drift (sand and gravel), as represented at 1, 
2, 3; this drift rests upon another drift formation, "hard 
pan," or blue clay, 5. Wells in the immediate vicinity of 
the hill have been sunk 66 feet, in pure sand and gravel, 
before reaching the stratum, 5, Originally (in 1800, up 
to 1818), most of the land lying along the line of railroad, 
from the bed of the Nimishillen, 7, for a mile or more to- 



DRAINAGE REMOVE? SURPLUS WATER. lOo 

ward the hill, was a perfect morass, as represented in the 
figure ; but occasional open drains and wells have now 
rendered it good arable land, although, in the immediate 
vicinity of the creek, evidences of the former marshy con- 
dition yet remain. 

The precise quantity of water required for the agricul- 
tural purposes of any district depends upon the nature 
of the soil and the crops, and the position of the district 
in relation to the surrounding country. Thus, if a perme- 
able soil occupy an elevated site, the water deposited 
upon it will pass rapidly, and, perhaps, before serving for 
the germination or nutriment of the plant. If, on the 
other hand, as is the far more common case in this coun- 
try, the soil be of a retentive character, and the site low 
in relation to other districts, the water will be kept while 
the soil becomes saturated to so great an extent, that the 
processes of vegetable germination and growth are greatly 
impeded. The soil exists in one of three conditions: 1. 
In the form of clay, being a dense mass of finely com- 
minuted particles, but all of a highly tenacious kind ; in 
a state of slight moisture, it becomes a clammy paste, 
and is never found so utterly devoid of moisture that its 
constituent particles are separable ; it affords no passages 
for water, receiving it with difficulty, and retaining it in 
the same way. 2. In the form of sand or gravel, the 
particles of which are seldom or never united, and the 
soil is, therefore, full of passages or canals for water. 
Soil of this kind has no power either to oppose the ad- 
mission or effect the retention of water poured upon it. 
And, 3. Existing in the form of a mixture of the alu- 
minous, silicious, and calcareous elements, in endless 
variety of proportions, found as clods, and in this state 
affording two classes of passages for the ingress and 
permeation of water, viz.: those remaining between the 



10 J: LAND DRAINAGE. 

particles which are congelated in each clod, and those 
formed by the spaces between the clods. The former are 
sometimes called pores, the latter canals. The power of 
admitting and retaining or discharging water, exerted by 
these mixed soils, will exist in an endless variety of de- 
grees, according to the mechanical formation of the con- 
stituent particles and clods. The state of soil which is 
most favorable for the germination and development of 
the plant, is that of moistures, capable of being readily 
crumbled by the hand, and equally removed from the ad- 
hesive extreme of r)iud, and the volatile one of dust. In 
this condition it will be found that the pores are filled with 
water, but the canals are not — these latter serving as 
passages for the air, which is one of the feeders of veget- 
able life;. and we can, therefore, readily understand that, 
when water exists in such quantity that the soil is satu- 
rated, and all the pores or canals filled, its condition is 
unhealthy for the growth and development of plants. 

The following extract from an admirable lecture on 
agricultural science, by Dr. Madden, quoted by the Gene- 
ral Board of Health in their " 3Iinutes of Information," 
although of considerable length, claims a space here, for 
the valuable information it conveys on the fitness of soil 
for promoting vegetable germination. 

" The first thing which occurs after the sowing of the seed is, of 
course, germination ; and before we examine how this process may 
he influenced by the condition of the soil, .we must necessarily ob- 
tain some correct idea of the process itself The most careful ex- 
amination has proved that the process of germination consists es- 
sentially of various chemical changes, which require, for their de- 
velopment, the presence of air, moisture, and a certain degree of 
warmth. Now it is obviously unnecessary for our present purpose, 
that we should have the least idea of the nature of these processes; 
all we require to do, is to ascertain the conditions under which they 
take place ; having detected these, we know at once what is required 



DRAINAGE REMOVES SURPLUS WATER. 105 

to make a seed grow. These, we have seen, are air, moisture, and a 
certain degree of warmth ; and it consequently results, that when- 
ever a seed is placed in these circumstances, germination will take 
place. Viewing matters in this light, it appears that soil does not 
act chemically in the process of germination; that its sole action is 
confined to its being the vehicle by means of Avhich a supply of air 
and moisture, and warmth, can be continually kept up. With this 
simple statement in view, we are quite prepared to consider the va- 
rious conditions of soil, for the purpose of determining how far these 
will influence the future prospects of the crop, and we shall accord- 
ingly at once proceed to examine, carefully, into the mechanical re- 
lations of soil. 

" Soil, examined mechanically, is found to consist entirely of par- 
ticles of all shapes and sizes, from stones and pebbles, down to the 
finest powder; and on account of their extreme irregularity of shape, 
they can not be so close to one another, as to prevent there being 
passages between them, owing to which circumstance soil in the 
mass is always more or less porous. If, however, we proceed to ex- 
amine one of the smallest particles of Avhich soil is made up, we 
shall find that even this is not always solid, but is much more fre- 
quently ^orojis, like soil in the mass. A considerable portion of 
this finely divided part of soil, the impalpable matter as it is gene- 
rally called, is found, by the aid of the microscope, to consist of 
hrolcen down vegetable tissue, so that when a small portion of the 
finest dust from a garden or field, is placed under the microscope, 
we have exhibited to us particles of every variety of shape and struc- 
ture, of which a certain part is evidently of vegetable origin. 

"On examining a perfectly dry soil, we perceive that there are 
two distinct classes of pore«: 1. The large ones, which exist be- 
tween the particles of soil ; and, 2. The very minute ones, which 
occur in the particles themselves ; and, whereas, all the larger poi'es, 
those between the particles of soil, communicate most freely with each 
other, so that they form canals, the small pores, however freely they 
may communicate with one another in the interior of the particle 
in which they occur, have no direct connection with the pores of 
the surrounding particles. Let us now, therefore, trace the efiect 
of this arrangement. ]f the soil is perfectly dry, the canals commu- 
nicating freely at the surface with the surrounding atmosphere, the 
whole of these canals and pores will, of course, be filled with air 
Tf, in this condition, a seed be placed in the soil, you at once per 



106 LAND DRAINAGE. 

ocivc that it is freely supplied with air, hut there is no moisture; 
therefore, when soil is perfectli/ dry, a seed can not grow. 

"Let us turn our attention now to that state of the soil in which 
water has taken the place of air, or, in other words, the soil is very 
ioet. If we observe our seed now, we find it abundantly supplied 
with water, but no air. Here again, therefore, germination can not 
take place. It may be well to state here, that this can never occur 
exactly in nature, because water has the power of dissolving air to 
a certain extent ; the seed is, in fact, supplied with a certain amount of 
this necessary substance ; and, owing to this, germination does take 
place, although by no means under such advantageous circumstances 
as it would, were the soil in a better condition. 

" We pass on to a diffex-ent state of matters. Let us suppose the 
canals are open, and freely supplied with air, while the pores are 
filled with water. While the seed now has quite enough of air 
from the canals, it can never be without moisture, as every particle 
of soil which touches it is well supplied wdth this necessary ingre- 
dient. This, then, is the proper condition of the plant for germina- 
tion, and, in fact, for every period of the plant's development; and 
this condition occurs when the soil is moist, but not wet — that is to 
say, when it has the color and appearance of being w^ell watered, 
but Avhen it is still capable of being crumbled to pieces by the 
hands, without any of its particles adhering together in the familiar 
form of mud. 

" Let us observe still another condition of soil: in this instance, 
as far as water is concerned, the soil is in its healthy condition — it 
is moist, but not wet, the pores alone being filled with water. But 
where are the canals ? We see them in a few places, but in, by far, 
the greater part of the soil none are to be jjerceived; this is owing 
to the particles of soil having adhered together, and thus, so far, ob- 
literated interstitial canals, that they appear only like pores. This 
is the state of matters in every clod of earth ; and you will at once 
perceive, on comparing it with a stone, that it differs from it, only 
in possessing a few pores ; which latter, while they may form a res- 
ervoir for moisture, can never act as vehicles for the food of plants, 
as the roots are not capable of extending their fibers into the in- 
terior of a clod, but are at all times confined to the interstitial 
canals. 

" With these four conditions before us, let us endeavor to apply 
them iiracticaUy, to ascertain when they occur in our fields, and 
how those which are injurious may be obviated. 



DRAINAGE REMOVES SURPLUS WATER. 107 

"The first of them is a state of too great dr^yness, a ven/ rare 
condition, in this climate at least; in fact, the only case in which it 
is likely to occur is in very coarse sands, where the soil, being 
chiefly made up of pure sand and particles of flinty matter, contains 
comparitively much fewer pores, and, from the large size of the in- 
dividual particles, assisted by their irregularity, the canals are 
wider, the circulation of air freer, and, consequently, the Avhole is 
much more easily dried. When this state of matters exists, the 
best treatment is to leave all the stones which occur on the surface 
of the field, as they cast shades, and thus retard the evaporation of 
water. 

" We will not, however, make any further observations on this 
very rare case, but will rather proceed to much more frequent, and, 
in every respect, more important condition of soil — an excess of 
water. 

'• When Avater is added to perfectly dry soil, it, of course, in the 
first instance, fills the intestitial canals, and from these enters the 
pores of each particle ; and if the supply of water be not too great 
the canals speedily become empty, so that the whole of the fluid is 
taken up by the pores; this, as we have already seen, is the healthy 
condition of soil. If, however, the supply of water be too great, as 
is the case when a spring gains admission into the soil, or when the 
sinking of the fluid through the canals to a sufficient depth below 
the surface is prevented, it is clear that these also must get filled 
with water so soon as the pores have become saturated. This, then, 
is the condition of undrained soil. 

"Not only are the pores filled, but the interstitial canals are like- 
wise full; and the consequence is, that the whole process of the 
germination and growth of vegetables is materially interfered with. 
We shall here, therefore, briefly state the injurious efi"ects of an ex- 
cess of water, for the purpose of impressing more strongly on your 
minds the necessity of thorough draining, as the first and most 
essential step toward the improvement of your soil. 

The first great eflect of an excess of water is, that it produces a 
corresponding diminution of the amount of air beneath the surface, 
which air is of the greatest possible consequence in the nutrition 
of plants ; in fact, if entirely excluded, germination could not take 
T)lace, and the seed sown Avould, of course, either decay or lie dor- 
mant. 

" Secondli/, an excess of water is most hurtful, by reducing con- 
siderably the fe»iper(itiirc vf the soil; this ! find, by careful expori- 



108 LAND DRAINAGE, 

mcnt, to be to the extent of GJ degrees Fahrenheit, in summer, 
which amount is equivalent to an elevation above the level of the 
sea of 1,950 feet. So that, supposing two fields lying side by side, 
the one drained, the other undrained, and supposing them both 
equally well cultivated, there will be nearly as much difference in 
the amount and value of their respective crops, as if the drained 
one was situated at the level of the sea, and the other had an eleva- 
tion as high as the most lofty of the Fentland Hills. But, beside 
this, and what is nearly equally bad, the temperature is rendered 
unnaturally high during winter ; whereas, it has been proved that 
one great source of health and vigor in vegetation is the great dif- 
ference which exists between the temperature of summer and win- 
ter, which difference amounts, in dry soil, to between thirty and 
forty degrees ; while in soil, very much injured by an excess of 
water, the whole range of the thermometer throughout the year will 
probably not exceed from six to ten degrees. 

"These are the chief injuries of an excess of water in soil which 
affect the soil itself There are very many others affecting the cli- 
mate, etc. ; but these are not so connected with the subject in hand as 
to call for an explanation here. 

"Of course all these injurious effects are at once overcome by 
thorough draining, the result of which is to establish a direct com- 
munication between the interstitial canals and the drains, by which 
means it follows that no water can remain any length of time in 
these canals, without, by its gravitation, finding its way to the 
drains. 

" Too much can not be said in ftivor of pulverizing the soil ; even 
thorough draining itself will not supersede the necessity of perform- 
ing this most necessary operation. The whole valuable effects of 
plowing, harrowing, grubbing, etc., maybe reduced to this; and 
almost the whole superiority of garden over field produce, is refer- 
able to the greater perfection to which this pulverizing of the soil 
can be carried. 

" The celebrated Jethro Tull has the honor of having first directed 
the farmer's attention forcibly to the subject; and so deeply im 
pressed was he with its infinite importance, that he believed the use 
of manure could be entirely superseded were this pulverizing car- 
ried to a sufficient extent. 

"The whole success of the drill husbandry is owing, in a great 
measure, to its enabling you to stir up the soil well during the pro- 
gress of your crop ; which stirring up is of no value beyond its 



DRAINAGE REMOVES SURPLUS WATER. 109 

eflect in more minutely pulverizing the soil, increasing, as far as 
possible, the size and number of the interstitial canals. 

" Lest any one should suppose that the contents of these inter- 
stitial canals must be so minute that their whole amount can be of 
but little consequence, I may here notice the fact, that in moder- 
ately '.veil pulverized soil they amount to no less than one fourth of 
the whole bulk of the soil itself; for example, 100 cubic inches of 
moist soil (that is, of soil in which the pores are filled with water, 
while the canals are filled with air), contain no less than 25 cubic 
inches of air. According to this calculation, in a field pulverized to 
the depth of eight inches, a depth perfectly attainable on most soils 
by careful tillage, every imperial acre will retain beneath its surface 
no less than 12,545,280 inches of air. A familiar illustration of the 
space occupied by the spaces between the particles of loosened soil 
is afforded by the fact that when soil is disturbed it more than fills 
the space it previously occupied. 

"Taking into calculation the w^eight of soil, we find that with 
every additional inch which you reduce to powder (by plowing, for 
example, nine inches in place of eight), you call into activity 235 
tuns of soil, and render it capable of retaining beneath the surface 
1,568,160 additional cubic inches of air. And to take one more 
element into the calculation, supposing the soil were not properly 
drained, the sufficient pulverizing would increase the escape of 
water from the surface by upward of 100 gallons a day. 

So far as the legal distinction between ivaier of pressure 
and springs is concerned, Judge French says : 

" As we find it in our field, it is neither rain water, which has 
there fallen, nor spring water, in any sense. It has been appropri- 
ately termed the water of pressure^ to distinguish it from both rain 
and spring water ; and the recognition of this term will certainly 
be found convenient to all who are engaged in the discussion of 
drainage. 

" The distinction is important in a legal point of view, as relating 
to the right of the land owner to divert the sources of supply to mill 
streams, or to adjacent lower lands. It often happens that an owner 
of land on a slope may desire to drain his field, while the adjacent 
owner below, may not only refuse to join in the drainage, but may 
believe that he derives an advantage from the surfixce washing or 
the percolation from his higher neighbor. lie may believe that, by 



110 LAND DRAINAGE. 

deep drainage above, his land will be dried up and rendered worth- 
less ; or, he may desire to collect the water which thus percolates, 
into his land, and use it for irrigation, or for a water ram, or for the 
supply of his barnyard. ^lay the upper owner legally proceed with 
the drainage of his own land, if he thus interfere with the interests 
of the man below ? 

" Again : wherever drains have been opened, we already hear 
complaints of their effects upon wells. In our good town of Exeter, 
there seems to be a general impression on one street, that the 
drainage of a swamp, formerly owned by the author, has drawn 
down the wells on that street, situated many rods distant from the 
drains. Those wells are upon a sandy plain, with underlying cla}^, 
and the drains are cut down upon the clay, and into it, and may 
possibly draw off the water a foot or two lower through the whole 
village — if we can regard the water line running through it as the 
surface of a pond, and the swamp as a dam across its outlet. 

" The rights of land owners, as to running water over their prem- 
ises, have been fruitful of litigation, but are now well defined. In 
general, in the language of Judge Story — 

" 'Every proprietor upon each bank of a river is entitled to the 
land covered with water in front of his bank to the middle thread 
of the stream, etc. In virtue of this ownership, he has a right to 
the use of the water flowing over it in its natural current, without 
diminution or obstruction. The consequence of this principle is, 
that no proprietor has a right to use the water to the prejudice of 
another. Jt is wholly immaterial whether the party be a proprietor 
above or below, in the course of the river, the right being common 
to all the proprietors on the river. No one has a right to diminish 
the quantity which will, according to the natural current, flow to 
the proprietor below, or to throw it back upon a proprietor above.' 

"Chief Justice Kichardson, of New Hampshire, thus briefly 
states the same position : 

" ' In general, every man has a right to the use of the water flow- 
ing in a stream through his land, and if any one divert the water 
from its natural channel, or throw it back, so as to deprive him of 
the use of it, the law will give him redress. But one man may ac- 
quire, by grant, a right to throw the water back upon the land of 
another, and long usage may be evidence of such a grant. It is, 
however, well settled that a man acquires no such right by merely 
being the first to make use of the water.' 

"We are not aware that it has ever been held by any court of 



DRAINAGE REMOVES SURPLUS WATER. Ill 

Liw, or even asserted, that a land owner may not intercept tlie per- 
colatliig water in his soil for any purpose and at his pleasure; nor 
have we in mind any case in which the draining out of water from 
a Avell, by drainage for agricultural purjDOses, has subjected the 
owner of the land to compensation. 

"It is believed that a land owner has the right to follow the rules 
of good husbandry in the drainage of his land, so far as the water 
of pressure is concerned, without responsibility for remote conse- 
quences to adjacent owners, to the owners of distant Avells or springs, 
that may be affected, or to mill owners. 

" In considering the effect of drainage on streams and rivers, it 
appears that the results of such operations, so far as they can be 
appreciated, are to lessen the value of water powers, by increasing 
the flow of water in times of freshets, and lessening it in times of 
drought. It is supposed in this country, that clearing the land of 
timber has sensibly affected the value of 'mill privileges,' by in- 
creasing evaporation, and diminishing the streams. Xo mill owner 
has been hardy enough to contend that a land owner may not le- 
gally cut down his own timber, whatever the efl'ect on the streams. 
So, Ave trust, no court will ever be found, which will restrict the 
land owner in the highest culture of his soil, because his drainage 
may affect the capacity of a mill stream to turn the water wheels." 



CHAPTER V. 

♦ 

DRAINAGE LENGTHENS THE SEASONS. 

We have already shown that drainage removes stagnant 
surface water, and surplus ground water. The removal 
of these waters, as a necessary consequence, prepares the 
soil at an earlier period, for the labors of the farmer, than 
if left to natural causes alone. 

The time required for the "settling of the soil," after 
the winter frost passes from it, depends, to a great ex- 
tent, upon its porous or its retentive character, is every- 
where known and conceded. The deep gravelly loam is 
seen to be very soon free from water, while the heavy clay 
requires a long time to become fit for cultivation. In the 
one case the soil is fully drained — in the other the water 
mostly passes off by the slow process of evaporation. 
The Avater being removed, prepares the ground to receive to 
its fullest extent, the beneficial influence of the sun's warm- 
ing rays, to impart to the soil the proper temperature for the 
germination and growth of seeds and plants. Thoroughly 
drained soil is not unfrequently ready for the plow from 
ten to fifteen days earlier, than a similar undrained one. 
Ten days of advanced growth of corn, barley, oats, wheat 
or potatoes, have often protected these crops from the 
effects of drought, early frost, or insects. Ten to fifteen 
days of advanced maturity, would fully protect the earlier 
varieties of wheat grown in Ohio, from the ravages of 
the midge {cecidomyia iritici), or the blighting effects of 
rust. The same advanced growth may secure the entire 
corn crop against early frosts, because in less time than 
that assumed, corn passes from the milky stage, when it 

ni2) 



DRAINAGE LENGTHENS THE SEASONS. 113 

would not require a severe frost to ruin it, to the glazed 
stage, when it is perfectly secure from the action of or- 
dinary fall frosts. Potatoes, in the same time, would be 
so far advanced as to be enabled, much better, to with- 
stand the drought — such as we had in Ohio in 1854 and 
1859 — when the very early potatoes did well enough, but 
the late ones were almost an entire failure. Fifteen days 
of advanced maturity of the oat crop in Ohio, in 1858, 
would have saved the entire crop from the blight or rust ; 
and thorough drainage will place these fifteen days at the 
farmer's disposal. 

In toliat manner will drainage prepare the soil fifteen 
days sooner than an undrained soil ? In the first place, 
the autumn rains will not so thoroughly stagnate in the 
soil, as they necessarily must, in an undrained one, be- 
cause they will drain off all the superfluous moisture be- 
tween the drain and the frozen surface during the fall and 
winter ; then, in the spring time, drain off all the mois- 
ture from the surface, as it finds its way into the soil. 

In order to demonstrate why drained soil is in order to 
be cultivated in the spring time, so much sooner than un- 
drained, we introduce the following table copied from the 
Saxony experiments at Tharand : 
11 



114 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



1853. 
Feb. 


Temperature 
of air. 


"■a 

H 


1853. 
.Uar. 


1^ 
S.2 


a 9 


1S63. 
July. 


■-I 


ai 
II 


1853. 
Aug. 


-*.3 


ai 
ll 

i 


1 


36.5 


36.5 


1 


24. 


33.8 


1 


67. 


54.5 


1 


66.6 


66.7 


.2 


31. 


37 


2 


23. 


33. 


2 


64.5 


64.5 


2 


66.5 


66.7 


3 


29. 


37.5 


3 


26.6 


33. 


3 


55.4 


64.6 


3 


71. 


66.7 


4 


31. 


37.4 


4 


20.7 


33. 


4 


53.6 


64.6 


4 


64.4 


66.6 


5 


31. 


38. 


5 


24. 


33. 


5 


60. 


54.5 


5 


64.4 


66." 


6 


31. 


38. 


6 


33. 


33.5 


6 


63.5 


54.5 


6 


55.4 


56.5 


7 


30. 


38. 


7 


35. 


33.8 


7 


74.6 


54.5 


7 


66.4 


66. 


8 


32. 


38. 


8 


38. 


36. 


8 


78.8 


54, 5 


8 


54.5 


56. 


9 


32. 


38. 


9 


31. 


35. 


9 


80. 


56. 


9 


48.2 


65.4 


10 


25. 


38. 


10 


32. 


35. 


10 


78.8 


56. 


10 


56.4 


56. 


11 


27.5 


38. 


11 


27. 


36. 


11 


62. 


56. 


11 


53.6 


56. 


12 


28.5 


37.4 


12 


29. 


36. 


12 


62. 


55, 


12 


55.4 


56. 


13 


22. 


37.5 


13 


33. 


36.5 


13 


73.4 


54. 


13 


54.5 


66. 


14 


23. 


37. 


14 


33. 


36. 


14 


71.6 


53.6 


14 


56. 


66. 


15 


21. 


36.5 


15 


36.5 


36.5 


16 


64.4 


54.5 


16 


57. 


55.4 


16 


21. 


35.6 


16 


24. 


36. 


16 


62.6 


54. 


16 


66.5 


55. 


17 


21. 


34.2 


17 


17.6 


36. 


17 


69. 


54. 


17 


67.2 


55. 


18 


15.8 


34.2 


18 


17.6 


36. 


18 


64.4 


64. 


18 


66.5 


55. 


19 


19.5 


35. 


19 


19.4 


36. 


19 


65.5 


54.6 


19 


57.2 


56. 


20 


21. 


35. 


20 


17.6 


36. 


20 


55.4 


54. 


20 


66.2 


54.5 


21 


23. 


34. 


2! 


21.2 


35. 


21 


56. 


54. 


21 


71. 


54.5 


22 


24.8 


33.8 


22 


24. 


36. 


22 


69. 


54.6 


22 


78.8 


54.5 


23 


26.6 


33.8 


23 


23. 


36. 


23 


60,8 


63.6 


23 


82.4 


54. 


24 


26.6 


33.8 


24 


22. 


36. 


24 


62. 


54. 


24 


78. 


54.5 


26 


24. 


33.8 


25 


23. 


.36. 


25 


77. 


64.5 


25 


68. 


64.5 


26 


16.5 


33.8 


26 


21.2 


36. 


26 


69.8 


54.5 


26 


67. 


64.5 


27 


28.5 


33.8 


27 


17.6 


36. 


27 


69.8 


66.5 


27 


57.2 


55. 


28 


27.5 


34 


28 


17.6 


36. 


28 


77. 


56. 


28 


60. 


55. 








29 


20. 


36. 


29 


73.4 


56.5 


29 


62. 


55. 








30 


26.6 


36. 


30 


68. 


56.7 


30 


62. 


66.5 








31 


27.5 


36. 


31 


64.4 


57. 


31 


67. 


56.5 



This table shows, that during the months of February 
and March, the water issuing from the drains had a much 
higher temperature than the atmosphere, and that during 
the months of July and August, the drain water Avas 
much cooler than the atmosphere. On the 18th of Feb- 
ruary, the temperature of the air was 15*8° Fahr., or 
16-2° below freezing point, while the drain water stood at 
34-2°, or 18-0^ above the air. 

The following table gives the mean monthly tem-pera- 



DRAINAGE LENGTHENS THE SEASONS. 



115 



ture of the atmosphere at 8 A. M., and 4 P. M., also of the 
drainage water at the same periods at Tharand, Saxony : 





Mean tempera- 


Blean tempera- 


Mean tempera- 


Mean tempera- 




ture of the air at 


ture of the drain- 


ture of air at 


ture of drainage 




8 A. M. 


age water at 


4 P. M. 


water at 






8 A. M. 




4 P. M. 


1853. 










February, 


26. 


35.6 


27. 


35.6 


March, 


25. 


35. 


31. 


35. 


April, 


38.7 


38. 


42. 


38. 


May, 


51. 


44.6 


61. 


44.6 


June, 


62. 


50. 


66. 


50. 


July, 


67. 


53.6 


72.5 


53.6 


August, 


61. 


54.5 


67. 


54. 


September, 


56.7 


53.6 


60.5 


53.6 


October, 


49. 


49. 


55. 


49. 


November, 


37.4 


46.4 


38.5 


47. 


December, 


24. 


37.4 


24. 


37.4 


1854. 










January, 


29. 


34.2 


31. 


34.5 


Mean for 










the year, 


43. 


44. 


46.5 


44.4 



From this we learn that the temperature of the air for 
the months December, January, February and March, was 
hoioy^ freezing point (32°), while the temperature of the 
drain water, during this entire period, was from 2*2° to 
3-6°, above the freezing point ; consequently, the drains 
were discharging w^ater during the entire winter, and 
when spring came, the soil was not saturated with autumn 
and winter rains, as undrained soils necessarily are. 

There is no doubt that temperature has considerable 
influence on the discharge of water from the drains. 
The observations recorded m the following table, were 
made at Tharand, in Saxony, to determine the influ- 
ence of temperature upon the discharge of water from 
drains. 

The following statements and observations are given 
as theory only — that is, theory in its true sense — infer- 
ences based upon facts or actual observations, in contra- 



116 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



distinction to the usual definition of theory, viz : specu- 
lations, or hypothesis to explain facts or phenomenon. 

TABULAR STATEMENT SHOWING THE INFLUENCE OP TEMPERATURE UPON THE 
DISCHARGE OP WATER FROM THE DRAINS ; ALSO, THE INFLUENCE OP RAINS 
UPON THE DISCHARGE PROM DRAINS. 





Temp. of at 


mosphere. 


Quantity of Kain 


Discharge of 


Increase com- 








per day, por acre, 


Drainage Water, 


pared with the 










Mini- 


Maxi- 


in gallons. 


daily, per acre. 


preceding day. 




mum. 


mum. 








1853. 












March 7 


?,2. 


35. 




280 


38 


" 8 


35. 


42.8 


1624 


2061 


1781 


" 9 


33.5 


42. 


1919 


3515 


1454 


" 10 


32. 


41.- 


295 


4137 


622 


11 


26.6 


42. 




5614 


1477 


April 1 


24.8 


46.4 




2158 


1264 


'' 2 


37.5 


45.5 


1255 


8605 


6447 


" 3 


33.8 


47.5 


295 


9410 


805 


1854=, 












Feb. 6 


31. 


44. 


14541 


5653 


5018 


" 7 


44.6 


47. 


14614 


11462 


5809 


March 2 


28.4 


40. 




5245 


4831 


" .3 


28.4 


41. 




7619 


2374 


9 


39.2 


44.6 


5905 


12154 


4535 


Dec. 15 


32. 


49. 


32772 


7084 


58.37 


16 


35. 


50. 


54178 


21463 


14379 



We "will now, in addition to this theory, present some 
facts, or rather the testimony of various practical farmers 
on this question, and none more to the point than the fol- 
lowing : At an agricultural meeting in Boston, Mr. B. F. 
Nourse, of Orington, Me., who was present, said that 
drainage on his farm "had put his springy, cold lands, in 
good working condition, earlier in the season, than any 
other in the neighborhood. One lot drained in 1852, was 
in good working condition as soon as the frost was out. 
Before drainage, cattle could not cross it early in June 
without miring. It enabled the later as well as the earlier 
cultivation of the. land. He had plowed as late as the 
20th of November." 

Mr. French, in his essay on drainage, refers also to 



DRAINAGE LENGTHENS THE SEASONS. 117 

Mr. Nourse's experience, making mention of a piece of 
corn he planted in this land on a drizzling rain, after a 
storm of two days. The corn came up and grew well ; 
although on a clayey loam, formerly as wet as the ad- 
joining grass field, over which oxen and carts could not 
pass on the day of this planting, Avithout cutting through 
the turf and miring deeply. 

Messrs. Maxwell Brothers, of Geneva, N. Y., in a 
statement of draining done on their farm in 1855, and 
which received the first premium of the State Agricultu- 
ral Society, say they underdrained one clayey lot, which 
previously " it was quite impracticable to plow or culti- 
vate in a wet time, and consequently it was very difficult 
to get in a spring crop in season." After underdraining 
" they could cultivate immediately after rains with ad- 
vantage," and, of course, get in their crops much more 
seasonably than before. Mr. Yeomans, another central 
New York farmer and nurseryman, states that on his 
drained lands "the ground becomes almost as dry, in two 
or three days after the frost comes out in spring, or after 
a heavy rain, as it would do in as many weeks before 
draining," and the frost leaves drained land at least a 
week sooner than that which remains undrained. 

It is a weighty argument for draining, that it relieves 
the ground of surplus water early in the spring, and so 
enables the work of the farmer and gardener to commence 
earlier than it otherwise could. It also makes that work 
easier and pleasanter. When the ground is undrained, it 
can not become dry, except by evaporation, or by the 
oozing away of the water, particle by particle, through a 
long reach of stifi" soil, into some natural outlet. Mean- 
while, the farmer must sit with folded hands in compara- 
tive idleness, knowing that by the time his land had be- 
come dry, his work will accumulate and press upon him 



118 LAND DRAINAGE. 

v.ith a burden ho can hardly bear. It would not be strange 
if some of that work shoul-d be left undone, or be slighted. 
Let but suitable drains be cut through that land, and the 
melting snows and drenching rains would speedily find 
their way in these channels, and leave the ground dry and 
warm, and ready for tillage several weeks earlier than 
fields not so treated. It would tend to relieve farm life 
of a great objection to it, in many minds, viz: that it 
imposes such hurrying and exhausting labors at particu- 
lar seasons, and especially in spring. It would enable 
the farmer to get certain crops into the ground earlier, 
and so make sure of a vigorous growth before the 
droughts of midsummer, and of maturity before the 
frosts of autumn. The farmer at the extreme noith, who 
sometimes repines at the shortness of the growing season, 
and the coldness of his soil, would thus practically gain 
olmost a degree of south latitude, without the necessity 
of selling his farm and moving his household gods. 



CHAPTER VI. 



DRAINAGE DEEPENS THE SOIL. 

It is a most important fact that drainage "deepens the 
soil," but in what manner this desideratum is accomplished 
none of the writers on the subject (whose works we have 
had the privilege of perusing) appear to explain. One 
writer^ says: 

" The effects of thorough drainins; in deepening the soil, are read- 
ily seen in a comparison of the characteristics of those wet and 
retentive, with those either naturally or artificially of a porous nature. 

"All heavy soils must be shallow from the influence of stagnant 
water — of water which saturates the surface, not being able to pass 
away by filtration. Every fall of water gives a mortar-like consist- 
ency to such a soil, and as the moisture passes off by the slow pro- 
cess of evaporation, it becomes baked and brick-like, instead of light 
and friable. If plowed when wet, it is entirely unfit for the growth 
of crops; if stirred when dry, it turns up in clods and lumps; in 
either case, it is only after much labor that any finely pulverized 
earth is obtained to support and nourish vegetable growth, and an 
inferior crop is ever the result. Saturation, without filtration, kills 
the productive power of any soil — makes it hard, shallow and sterile, 
however rich in every element of fertility it may be, when differ- 
ently situated in the single circumstance of drainage. 

" Porous, or well drained soils, on the contrar}"-, never retain, even 
if they become saturated with water. The surplus moisture filtrates 
at once into the drains, leaving the surfiice loose .and fi-iable. Such 
a soil can be plowed at any seasonable time, and turns up mellow 
earth, readily fitted as a seed bed for any crop. Such a soil invites 
the roots of plants down, offering them food instead of a stone-like 
earth, and every year deepens the area of vegetable growth, until the 
full depth is reached to which it has been drained." 

1 Editor. Conntri^ Oentleman. 

n\9) 



120 LAND DRAINAGE. 

But then, after all, Ave have no explanation of how the 
soil is deepened, other than it becomes so by thorougli 
drainage. The editor then produces the following capi- 
tal statement of the fact, if anj were needed, to prove 
that drainage deepens the soil : 

"That draining deepens the soil, we will bring a single instance 
to show — one which confirms every point stated above. It is con- 
densed from a letter from that pioneer drainer and pioneer of good 
farmers, John Johnston, near Geneva, N. Y., and was published in 
the Country Gentleman^ of January 19, 1854. He says: 

" ' Last spring I conclvided to ploM'' a clayey field, containing forty 
acres, only once for wheat, and that after harvest. Previous to drain- 
ing, it was one of my wettest fields, and in dry weather, even in April 
and ]\Iay, was very hard to plow, often having to get the coulters and 
shares sharped every day, when we used wrought iron shares. Owing 
to the great drought before, during and after harvest, I got a large 
plow made, so that I could put two or more yokes of cattle, and a 
pair of horses to it if necessary. Immediately after harvest we 
started for the field, oxen and drivers, plowmen and horses; and 
beside new shares on the plows, took other new shares along, ex- 
pecting to be obliged to change every day. 

" 'When we got to the field, I had one man put a pair of horses 
before the large plow, and try to open the land with a shallow fur- 
row. He went seventy rods away and back without even a stop, 
expect Avhen the clover choked the plow. I then put the plow down 
to eight inches, and after one round, to nearly ten, and we went 
around without any trouble. His furrow was over nine inches deep, 
and laid as perfect as could be. T then had one yoke of oxen put 
behind my smallest horses, and a pair of horses before each of my 
other plows, and they plowed the field Avith perfect case, only 
changing shares twice. 

" ' Although the field was undoubtedly plowed at the rate of nine 
inches deep, yet the clover roots went deeper, and the land plowed up 
as mellow as any loam ; whereas, had it not been drained, it would 
have broke up in lumps as large as the heads of horses or oxen. A 
few years ago, a neighbor broke up a field about the same season, 
and similar land, but not drained, and after cultivating, rolling and 
harrowing, he had to employ men and mallets to break the lumps, 
before he could get mold to cover the seed ; and after all did not get 



DRAINAGE DEEPENS THE SOIL. 121 

the third of a crop of either wheat or straw. My wheat looks as 
well as any I ever saw, and 1 doubt not it will be a good crop.' 

"Those farmers, and they are not few, who have had experience 
in the cultivation of clayey soils when dry, or in any state, will not 
wonder that Mr. Johnston exclaimed, on finding this great change 
in the depth and friability of this clay bed : ' I never was more 
agreeably surprised in my life — in fact, had my men been plowing 
in gold dust, as they do in California, T should have been no more 
pleased.' This great change was the simple effect of thorough 
drainage — the soil, no longer compelled to remain saturated with 
water, lost its brick and morter character, and became a live, or at 
least an active and productive soil, ready to reward the labor of the 
farmer." 

A correspondent, reviewing Judge French's work on 
drainage, says : 

" In his chapter on the effects of drainage upon the condition of 
the soil, the author of ' Fa7-m Drainage^ announces the proposition 
tliat ' drainage deepens the soil.' How this effect is produced we 
are not told, though a hint is given that it ' lowers the line of stand- 
ing water,' and then we are treated to a page or so of reasoning and 
authorities to show that plants send their roots to a great depth if 
the soil admits. We are told also that the roots of few plants, ex- 
cept those of an aquatic character, will grow or live in stagnant 
water. Hence we are left to conclude that ' drainage deepens the 
soil.' " 

And thus it is with all authorities ; they state the fact, 
and this is, perhaps, all that the present locomotive, tele- 
graph, lightning press, steamship age requires ; but the 
inducement for those to underdrain who are deprived of 
the privilege of seeing and examining the practical work- 
ings of underdraining, will be much stronger if the chain 
of the argument is complete — not having a single defec- 
tive link in it. 

Alderman Isaac J. Mechi, speaking of draining heavy 
lands, says : ^ " I consider it an axiom that the friability 
of the soil will be in proportion to the rapidity of percola- 

1 Ilijw (o Farm rrojitahlij, page 49. •■ 



122 LAND DRAINAGE. 

tion. Filtration may be too sudden, as is well enough 
shown by our hot sands and gravels ; but I apprehend no 
one will ever fear rendering strong clays too porous and 
manageable. The object of drainage is to impart to such 
soils the mellowness and dark color of self-drained, rich 
and friable soil. That perfect drainage and cultivation 
will ultimately do this is a well-known fact. I know it in 
the case of my own garden. How it does so I am not 
chemist enough to explain in detail ; but it is evident the 
effect is produced by the fibers of the growing crops in- 
tersecting every particle of the soil, which they never 
could do before draining ; these, with their excretions, 
decompose on the removal of the crop, and are acted on 
by the alternating air and water, which also decompose 
and change, in degree, the inorganic substances of the 
soil. Thereby drained land, which was before impervious 
to air and water, and consequently unavailable to air and 
roots, to worms, or to vegetable or animal life, becomes, 
by drainage, populated by both, and is a great chemical 
laboratory, as our own atmosphere, subject to all the 
changes produced by animated nature." 

The explanation given above is not much more satisfac- 
tory than the preceding ones, with this exception; he 
hints at a chemical mean, while the others are rather in- 
clined to attribute it entirely to a mechanical one ; but 
both leave us to infer that the roots of the crops have 
much to do with producing the mellow condition of the 
soil. A correspondent of the Country Gentleman, over 
the signature of " A Reading Farmer," concludes that 
the roots of a crop are not essential to produce this con- 
dition, for he says : 

"A simple experiment -will convince any farmer that the best mean 
of permanently deepening and mellowing his soil, is by thorough 
drainage, to afford a ready exit for all surplus moisture. Let him 



DRAmiNG DEEPENS THE SOIL. 123 

take, in spring, while wet, a quantity of his hardest soil — such as it 
is almost impossible to plow in summer — such as presents <a baked 
and brick-like character, under the influence of drought — and place 
it in a box or barrel open at the bottom, and frequently during the 
season let him saturate it with water. He will find it gradually be- 
coming more and more porous and friable — holding water less and 
less perfectly as the experiment proceeds, and in the end it will attain 
a state best suited to the growth of plants from its deep and mellow 
character. Here we have the result of drainage as it acts upon the 
soil. It may require time to act — probably on heavy clays more 
than a single season, but it will act in conjunction with other natu- 
ral influences to give depth and friability to the soil." 

Now, SO far as ourself is concerned, we agree with all 
the authorities we have quoted, that drainage " deepens 
the soil," by " lowering the line of standing water," " by 
roots of crops," by making the subsoil accessible to 
" vegetable and animal life;" but, at the same time, we are 
of opinion that there is another agent, which we find no 
where mentioned in this connection, whose influence in 
mellowing and deepening the soil is just as powerful as 
the causes just cited. 

Some years since, in conversation with a very intelli- 
gent gentleman, a farmer, but an Englishman by birth, we 
expressed our surprise that while he spoke so very highly 
of everything English, that he did not use a Crosskill's 
clod crusher, that being eminently English. " For the 
very reason," replied he, " that in this . country (U. S.) 
we have an infinitely cheaper, and much better ' clod 
crusher' than Crosskill's, or any the English can invent, 
unless the gulf stream should change its course," What 
relation possibly could exist between the gulf stream and 
a clod crusher we could certainly not divine, and as we 
looked inquiringly into our friend's face to assure ourself 
of his sanity, he laughingly replied : " I mean Jack Fkost." 
True they have frosts in England, but no comparison to 
the frosts we have here — their frosts are rather mild 



124 LAND DRAINAGE. 

and good natured, like John Bull himself, after he has 
just risen from the enjoyment of his favorite roast heef, 
■while the frosts here act with the force of a locomotive 
running eighty miles an hour, breaking up, tearing up, 
and smashing things generally. Plow up a stiff clay in 
the fall, and let Jack Frost have fair play on it until next 
April, and Crosskill's clod crusher might be very thank- 
ful if the next harvest awarded it a second premium, 
while Jack Frost would take the first over all competitors. 

Jack Frost, in our opinion, is the certain other agent 
above alluded to. In a drained clay, the late fall or early 
winter rains always leave moisture enough for the frost 
to congeal, and every congelation separates particles of the 
soil ; then, when a thaw takes place, the water is borne 
ofi" into the drain. In fact, in three-feet drains the pro- 
cess of thawing is going on from below upward all the 
while ; hence, in springtime, drained soil is dr}^ or ready 
to work in a few days. Jack Frost, in this manner, in- 
stitutes beneath the soil, in the words of Alderman Me- 
chi, "as great a chemical laboratory as our own atmos- 
phere." Our own observation is, that mild Avinters are 
never succeeded by as bountiful harvests as more severe 
ones are ; but then Avinters may be too severe, as well as 
too mild ; yet drained soils, in either event, fare much 
better than undrained ones. 

We do not think that a heavy clay soil, drained in the 
spring and plowed in the fall of the same year, Avould 
plow so much easier, as Johnston, just above quoted, states 
that his did, or as that did in the following extract from 
a correspondent to the Country Gentleman : 

"A Western New York farmer had a wet soil, thoi'oughly under- 
drained with tile — a field of forty acres. Jt had always been very 
hard and diificult to plow in the summer, taking a strong force of 
teams, and wearing out the plows very rapidly, and still the work 
was doi.o in a very imperfect manner. After draining, he contdiided 



DRAINAGE DEEPENS THE SOIL. 125 

to plow it once after harvest for wheat, as it had lain for some time 
in clover. He went on with it with his triple teams and large plows, 
but found that a single team could turn a furrow ten inches deep 
with perfect ease. The land plowed up as mellow as any loam, 
where, previous to draining, at that season it would have broken up 
in lumps as large as the heads of his horses. To drainage he attrib- 
uted the change, and we have no doubt that the deep mellow state 
of the soil resulted entirely from 'lowering the line of standing wa- 
ter ; ' from aflfording it opportunity for filtering rapidly througli the 
soil, instead of rising slowly as evaporated by the heat of summer." 

Deepening the soil is certainly a great desideratum with 
every intelligent agriculturist, since every inch of depth 
of soil gives 100 tuns of active soil per acre for the nu- 
trition of the growing crop. Those who argue that the 
cultivated plants obtain all their nourishment in a soil 8 
or 10 inches deep, certainly have never investigated the 
subject. The writer remembers distinctly that many years 
ago he measured the roots of the oat plant, found in the 
course of digging a cellar, which had penetrated the soil 
to a depth of four feet. At another time, under similar 
circumstances, the roots of the wheat plant were found to 
have penetrated to a depth of five feet and several inches. 
Roots of the corn plant were found at a depth of three 
feet. Mr, Denton, an English writer, quoted by Judge 
French, says: 

" I have evidence now before me that the roots of the Avheat plant, 
the mangold wurzel, the cabbage and the white turnip frequently 
descend into the soil to the depth of three feet. 1 have mj'self traced 
tlie roots of wheat nine feet deep. I have discovered the roots of 
perennial grasses in drains four feel deep ; and I may refer to ^Ir. 
Mercer, of Newton, in Lancashire, who has traced the roots of rye 
grass running for many feet along a small pipe drain, after descend- 
ing four feet through the soil. Mr. Hetley, of Orton, assures me 
that he discovered the roots of the mangolds, in a recently made 
drain, five feet deep ; and the late Sir John Conroy had many newly- 
made drains, four feet deep, stopped by the roots of the same 
plants." 



126 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



It certainly requires no argument to prove that the 
roots of phmts can not penetrate to these depths in a 
" water-logged," compact clay soil. 

The following cuts (Figs. 9 and 10) prove that drainage 
deepens the soil. In Fig. 9, a represents the surface soil; 





'O. 



the line between a and h the line of capillary attraction ; 
e, ground water, and the line between h and c is the ground 
water line. The plant is weak, has few heads and very 
few roots. In Fig. 10, a is the surface soil; e, the ground 
water ; / /, drains, 3 feet deep ; d, water of capillary at- 
traction. It is a well-known fact, that the roots go down 
to the water table, whether it is at h, Fig. 9, at 10 inches 
depth, or at /, Fig. 10, at 3 feet depth. The plant in 



DRAINAGE DEEPENS THE SOIL. 



127 



Fig. 10 is thrifty, has large and many roots and numerous 
heads. We have known a single grain of wheat, on such 
soils in Ohio produce 60 perfect heads of wheat. In the 
springtime the roots and foliage of wheat on such soil are 
represented by Fig. 11. 




Fig. 11. — Appearance of foliage and roots of the wheat plant in the spring, 
on an undenlrained soil. 



CHAPTER VII. 



DRAINAGE WARMS THE UNDER SOIL. 

Professor Johnston says : 

"As the rain falls through the air it acquires the temperature of 
the atmosphere. If this be higher than that of the surface soil, the 
latter is warmed by it; and if the rains be copious, and sink easily 
into the subsoil, they will carry this warmth with them to the depth 
of the drains. Thus the under soil, in well-drained land, is not only 
warmer, because the evaporation is less, but because the rains in the 
summer season actually bring down warmth from the heavens to add 
to their natural heat." 

There are two reasons why wet lands are always cold, 
and especially so in the spring : one is, the slow conduc- 
tion of heat downward through a body of water; the other 
is, the heat lost in the evaporation of water. When heat 
is applied to the bottom of a vessel containing water, the 
portions that are first heated expand, become specifically 
lighter, ascend, and give place to heavier a.nd colder por- 
tions. These, in turn, are heated and ascend, and thus a 
constant circuit is maintained until the whole is equally 
heated. When heat is applied to the top of a vessel of 
water, the upper stratum is heated; but this remains on 
the top, and no movement in the liquid brings unheated 
portions in contact with the fire, consequently heat passes 
downward through water slowly, and with great difficulty. 
Hence, a wet piece of land, which receives its heat from 
the sun's rays acting on the surface, will be a long time 
in being warmed to any depth. 

The removal of surplus water by evaporation interferes 
still more with the warming of the soil in the spring. The 
vapor of water may be described as a compound of water 

(V2S) 



DRAINAGE WARMS THE UNDER SOIL. 129 

and heat. Not more certain is it that Avater is taken from 
the soil by evaporation, than that a definite proportion of 
heat passes off with it. And hence, lands from which a 
large amount of water has to be removed in the spring by 
evaporation, are kept cold until the process is finished. 
The cooling effects of evaporation arc highly beneficial, 
under some circumstances, but on wet lands, in the spring 
of the year, they are anything but desirable. 

It follows, therefore, that the way to make cold, wet 
lands warm, is to resort to thorough drainage ; and this, 
experience has shown, has the effect to raise the tempera- 
ture of the soil many degrees through the whole spring. 
Not only is the heat communicated by the sun's rays re- 
tained, instead of being carried off in converting water 
into vapor, but dry soil, or any other solid bodies, Avill 
transmit heat downward better than liquids ; in addition 
to this, a dry soil has its interstices filled with an air which 
diffuses heat, and helps to elevate the temperature. 

A warm soil in the spring has a great advantage over 
a cold one. The seeds, planted or sown germinate at once, 
and don't permit the hardier seeds of weeds to get the 
start of the crop. Or, if the farmer chooses to stir the 
-soil two or three times before putting in the crop, the 
seeds of weeds have the opportunity to germinate early, 
so that the young weeds may be killed by subsequent work- 
ings before the intended crop is sown. It is the expe- 
rience of all, that drained lands are much easiest kept 
clean. But the temperature of the soil has a controlling 
influence on the growth of corn and some other spring 
crops. Corn will germinate when the temperature of the 
soil is about 55° Fahrenheit ; a few degrees lower it will 
rot in the ground. In fact, fault is often found with seed 
corn, when the only difficulty is in the want of sufficient 
warmth in the soil. Barley, oats, and spring wheat may 



130 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



be sown on drained lands almost as soon as the frost is 
out, and there is little or no risk of the seed perishing. 
If the temperature of the atmosphere is not sufficient to 
justify growth above ground, if the soil be only warm 
enough, the plant will make the better growth of roots 
below. 

The following illustration of the manner in which drain- 
age warms the under soil, Ave find in the Patent Office Re- 
port for 1856, over the signature "D. J. B." (D, J. 
Browne), but the same illustration, engraving and text, 
^^ verbatim, spellatim et punctuatim" are credited to the 
Horticulturist, of November, 1856, by Judge French. Not 
knowing, therefore, which one of the authorities is entitled 
to the credit, we accordingly '•''divide the honors" between 
them. 

"The reason why drained land gains heat, and water- logged land 
is always cold, consists in the well-known fact that heat can not be 
transmitted dowmcard through water. This may readily be seen by 
the following experiments : 

" Experiment No 1. — A square box was made, of the form repre- 
sented by the annexed diagram, eighteen 
inches deep, eleven inches wide at top, 
and six inches wide at bottom. It was 
filled wuth peat, saturated with water to. 
e, forming to that depth (twelve and a 
half inches) a sort of artificial bog. The 
box was then filled with water to f. A 
thermometer, e, was plunged, so that its 
bulb was within one inch and a half of 
the bottom. The temperature of the 
whole mass of peat and water was found 
to be 39^° Fahr. A gallon of boiling 
water was then added ; it raised the 
surface of the water to g. In five min- 
utes the thermometer, c, rose to 44° 
owing to the conduction of heat by the 
""• ^^- thermometer and its guard tube ; at ten 

minutes from the introduction of the hot Avater, the thermometer, c, 




DRAIX AGE WARMS THE UNDER SOIL. 131 

rose to 4G°, and it subsequently rose no highei". Another thermom- 
eter, b, dipping under the surface of the water at g, was then intro- 
duced, and the following are the indications of the two thermometers 
at the respective intervals, reckoning from the time the hot water 
was supplied : 

Thermometer, b. Thermometer, c. 
20 minutes, - - 150 deg. 46 deg. 

1 hour 30 " - - - 101 " 45 " 

2 hours 30 " - - - 80J " 42 " 
12 " 40 " - - . 45 " 40 " 
"The mean temperature of the external air to which the box was 

exposed, during the above period, was 42"^, the maximum being 47°, 
and the minimum 37°. 

^'^ Experiment N'o. 2. — With the same arrangement as in the pre- 
ceding case, a gallon of boiling water was introduced above the peat 
and water, when the thermometer, c, was at 36°; in ten minutes it 
rose to 40°. The cock Avas then turned for the jwrpose of drainage, 
which was but slowly eflccted ; and, at the end of twenty minutes, 
the thermometer, c, indicated 40°; at twenty-five minutes, 42°, while 
the thermometer, b, was 142°. At thirty minutes, the cock was 
withdrawn from the box, and more free egress of w.ater being thus 
afforded, at thirty-five minutes the flow was no longer continuous, 
and the thermometer, b, indicated 48°. The mass was drained, and 
permeable to a fresh supply of water. Accordingly, another gallon 
of boiling water was poured over it; and, in 

3 minutes, the thermometer, c, rose to - - 77 deg. 

5 " " fell to - 76J " 

15 " " " - - 10} " 

20 " " remained at 71 " 

] hour 50 " " " ■" - 70.] " 

"In these two experiments, the thermometer at the bottom of the 
box suddenly rose a few degrees immediately after the hot Avater 
v.ns added ; and it might be inferred that the heat was carried down- 
ward by the water. IJut, in reality, the rise was owing to the action 
(if the hot water on the thermometer, aiid not to its action upon the 
cold water. To prove this, the perpendicular thermometers Avere 
removed ; the box was filled with peat and water to Avithin three 
inches of the top, a horizontal thermometer, c d, having been pre- 
viously secured through a hole made in the side of the box, by 
means of a.tight-fitting cork, in which the naked stem of the ther- 



132 LAND DRAINAGE. 

mometer was grooved. A gallon of boiling water was then added. 
The thermometer, a very delicate one, was not in the least affected 
by the boiling water in the top of the box. 

" In this experiment the wooden box may be supposed to be a 
field ; the peat and cold water represent the water-logged portion ; 
rain falls on the surface, and becomes warmed by contact with the 
soil, and, thus heated, descends; but it is stopped by the cold water, 
and the heat will go no further. But, if the soil is drained, and not 
water-logged, the warm rain trickles through the crevices of the 
earth, carrying to the drain level the high temperature it had gained 
on the surface, parts with it to the soil as it passes down, and thus 
produces that bottom heat which is so essential to plants, although 
so few suspect its existence." 



CHAPTER VIII. 



DRAINAGE EQUALIZES THE TEMPERATURE OF THE 
SOIL DURING THE SEASON OF GROWTH. 

We have already shown that the discharges of water 
from drains are always several degrees above freezing 
point ; and as heat naturally tends upioard, that the soil 
is measurably warmed from beloAV during the germinating 
season of the seeds, so that not unfrequently the soil is, 
during the entire month of April, much Avarmer than the 
air at night, although, perhaps, colder than the air during 
the day. The soil of a drained field is, therefore, free 
from the extremes of temperature of day and night air, 
during the same time. Again we have shown, by the 
tables copied from observations at Tharand, in Saxony, 
that the drains have a lower temperature during July and 
August, than the air. Thus, while drains equalize the 
temperature of the soil, and exempt it from the extremes 
of day and night temperature ; it also equalizes it, and 
exempts it from the extremes of winter and summer tem- 
peratures. Prof. Johnston says : 

" The sun beats upon the surface of the soil, and gradually warms 
it. Yet, even in summer, this direct heat descends only a few inches 
beneath the surface. But when the rain falls upon the warm sur- 
face, and finds an easy descent as it does in open soils, it becomes 
itt;elf warmer, and carries its heat down to the under soil. Then 
the roots of plants are warmed, and general growth is stimulated." 

(133) 



CHAPTER IX. 



DRAINAGE CARRIES DOWN SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES TO 
THE ROOTS OP PLANTS. 

Prof. Johnston says : "When rain falls upon heavy 
undrainccl land, or upon any land into which it docs 
not readily sink, it runs over the surface, dissolves any 
soluble matter it may meet with, and carries it to the 
nearest ditch or brook. Rain thus robs and impoverishes 
such land." 

It must be self-evident to every observing person, that 
the advantage of rain to growing crops, is to furnish them 
with new supplies of nutrition. In undrained lands the 
" water line " being near the surface, most of the benefits 
to growing crops, which might be derived from rains are 
lost, either by evaporation of volatile substances, or, be- 
ing in a soluble condition, they are washed to lower levels 
of surface, or into streams. The ground being already 
saturated from below, prevents the entrance from the sur- 
face of the desired elements ; but in a drained soil on ac- 
count of its greater porosity or mellowness and lower level 
of the water line, these substances can readily penetrate 
from the surface. The subject of the " absorbing quali- 
ties of arable soil" having been extensively discussed, 
within the last few years, by the best agricultural chem- 
ists of England and the continent, it mayjiot be inappro- 
priate to present a summary of the experiments and the 
conclusions deduced from them. 

In 1848, Messrs. Iluxtablc and Thompson discovered, 
in arable lands, the property of fixing some of the ele- 
ments of manures. Mr. Iluxtable, having filtered some, 

(134) 



SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES. 135 

barn-yard liquid through some earth, obtained it de- 
prived of color and bad odor. 

At the same time H. S. Thompson found the earth to 
possess the faculty of retaining, in an indissoluble state, 
the alkali of an ammoniacal solution, and even of solu- 
tions in which the bases were no longer in a free state, 
but were in combination with hydrochloric acid, and sul- 
phate and nitrate of ammonia. 

]Mr. J. T. Way having been made acquainted with these 
remarkable results, undertook a long series of researches 
Avith the view of determining the cause and conditions of 
this absorption ; he found that the absorbing property of 
the earth is not confined to ammonia only, but that it is 
extended to all alkaline and earthy bases, which are nec- 
essary for the growth of vegetation ; such as soda, pot- 
ash, magnesia, and lime, either free or involved in combi- 
nations. 

After numerous experiments, Avhich were repeated with 
the view of ascertaining whether the property of retain- 
ing the elements of manures, really existed in the arable 
soil, Mr. Way endeavored to express by numbers, the 
value of this absorption. For that purpose he caused a 
quantity of earth to be digested in a solution of the com- 
pound he wished to operate upon, the diiference in de- 
grees Avhich the composition of the liquid indicated after 
its contact with the earth, showed what had been ab- 
sorbed. 

By this operation, Mr. Way found that 1000 grains of 
cither clay or earth could absorb from a solution which 
contained 3173 per cent, of ammonia (or 3xr,Vo gi'ains of 
ammonia in 1000 grains of solution) quantities of alkali 
ranging from lyoVo grains to Sj-^t^o grains, difi"ering only 
with the diiference in the soils or clays, the per cent, being 
uniform in repeated experiments with the same earth. 



136 LAND DRAINAGE. 

There is nothing absolute in these figures ; they are 
modified by the degree of concentration of the liquid 
and the quantities of either earth or liquid which are 
used. 

The absorption takes- place with great rapidity, and is 
as complete in half an hour, as it is after remaining in 
contact during fifteen hours ; when the experiment is 
made with a salt of ammonia, it is decomposed, the bases 
only are fixed, while the acid is totally eliminated in a 
state of calcareous salt, in the decanted liquid. 

What is the cause of this phenomenon? Is it caused 
by the presence of the lime, or of the organic matter ? 
Is it owing to the free aluminium which may be in the 
soil? Mr. Way does not think so, because no greater ab- 
sorption of ammonia is obtained by adding carbonate of 
lime to clay, free from this basis in a carbonated state, 
but containing a small proportion of the calcareous ele- 
ment ; on the other hand, the incineration of the clay 
could not entirely destroy the decomposing and absorbing 
power of this earth, either on salts or bases ; finally, the 
treatment by hydrochloric acid causes the solution of the 
aluminum to diminish, but does not destroy the decom- 
posing and absorbing power of clay. 

The rapidity Avith which the absorption of the bases 
by earth is efi'ected, led Mr. Way to suppose that a chemi- 
cal combination was formed ; in such a case, the absorp- 
tion of an alkali other than ammonia ought to take place, 
in the proportion of the two elements. 

When acting with a salt of potash, 1000 grains of earth 
retained 4yVoV grains of potash ; the absorption Avas 
then more considerable, without being, as it ought to 
have been, in the prevision of the hypothesis ; and. never- 
theless, the liquid contained potash (substituted for am- 
monia), in true proportion indicated by the equivalents, 



SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES. 137 

that is : 8yVoV of potash to 1000 grains of solution, — 
In this case, as with ammonia, the more concentrated 
liquids produce a greater absorption ; and when the salt 
was replaced by a solution of caustic potash, 1000 grains 
of earth retained llyVro grains of alkali ; this absorption 
was still increased, when the earth had previously been 
boiled in an acid. 

As it was easy to foresee, the salts of lime in solu- 
tion underwent no modification when filtered through the 
earth ; but lime water, according to the quantities which 
are employed, imparts, in similar circumstances, a quantity 
of alkali, which, in 1000 grains of earth, varies from 
2tVo grains, to 14tVo grains. 

When the lime is in the form of a carbonate, dissolved 
in water containing carbonic acid, the absorption is 7roV 
grains of carbonate of lime for 1000 grains of earth. 

The salts of soda and magnesia undergo a transforma- 
tion in the soil, similar to that of the other alkaline com- 
pounds ; but the action is less conspicuous, and gives no 
occasion for numerical determinations. 

The bases being retained by the soil, the acids which, 
like phosphoric acid, form with lime insoluble compounds, 
ought to be insoluble also ; this idea was confirmed by 
two operations of Mr. Way : in the one, water in which 
flax had been steeped ; and in the other, sink woter was 
employed ; both were filtered through earth ; the soil re- 
tained precisely all the substances which are the most 
useful to vegetation, such as organic matters in general, 
or nitrogenous substances only, the phosphoric acid, pot- 
ash and magnesia ; while the others were absorbed .only 
in part, or were found in greater proportion in the filtered 
T/ater. 

Mr. Way was led, by these experiments, to the follow- 

13 



138 LAND DRAINAGE. 

ing conclusions : 1. The plants do not absorb the ma- 
nure in a state of solution. Next, the form under which 
mineral matters and ammoniacal salts are applied, is dif- 
.ferent; because the soil possesses the power of bringing 
them back to a special state, in which these substances 
are presented to the plants, an important circumstance 
for the agriculturist who endeavors to introduce an alkali 
as manure into the soil ; the salt that will supply that 
alkali at the lowest price, will, of course, obtain the pre- 
ference. 

It was also found, by Mr. Way, that clay possesses an- 
tiseptic qualities, because urine filtered through clay did 
not undergo putrid fermentation. From this fact, we' have 
reason to infer that plants do assimilate nitrogenous sub- 
stances other than ammonia and nitric acid. 

Finally, Mr. Way thinks that manures, and by all means 
artificial ones, ought to be spread with great evenness, in 
order to secure everywhere uniform vegetation ; because 
capillarity would be unable to disseminate the fertilizing 
substances, by means of diffusion, on account of their in- 
solubility. The same cause would permit the application 
of large quantities of manure, without fear of any loss 
through drain water, because a good soil may retain, with- 
out waste, sixty times as much of the fertilizing elements 
as are applied with the manures. 

Messrs. W. Henneberg and F. Stokmann, after repeat- 
ing Way's experiments, confirmed in every point his con- 
clusions ; they found the results so perfectly regular, that 
Mr. Boedecker was enabled, from their data, to establish 
algebraic formulae, showing the value of absorption on 
any given quantity of earth, of liquid, and degree of 
solution. 

Liebig resumed Way's experiments, and confining him- 
self to the study of arable lands, ascertained that all soils 



SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES. 139 

possessed very nearly the same absorbing power; he 
found, as did Mr. Way, that soils, either rich or poor in 
carbonate of lime, did not manifest that power with the 
same intensity with all bases ; thus, in filtering barn-yard 
liquid, potash was retained with more readiness than soda, 
f aro grammes of barn-yard liquid which contained, before 



being filtered : 




Potash, - - grains. 


0.0867 


Soda, - - 


0.0168 


Contained, after being filtered : 




Potash, - - grains. 


0.0056 


Soda, - - " 


0.0118 



Whereas, the whole of the ammonia was retained. 

The alkaline silicate of potash is acted upon by the 
earth like other salts of potash ; the basis is absorbed, and 
in the same time a quantity of the silica is retained. 
While the absorption of the basis by various soils offers 
but small difi'erences, the absorption of the silica appears 
to be in an inverted ratio, as the organic substances pre- 
sent in the soil, which are mostly of an acid reaction ; and, 
strongly saturating the earthy bases, such as lime and 
magnesia, they present an obstacle to the fixation of silica. 

The solution of silicate of potash, which was acted 
upon, contained per quart : 

Potash, - - grains. 1.166 
Silica, - - " 2.780 

The absorption for 1,000 cubic centimetres of various 
soils, was as follows : 

Potash. Silica. 

Earth from a forest, - - - gr. 0.951 gr. 0.115 

" from a garden, - - - " 1.055 " 1.081 

" from Bogenhausen, - - " 1.148 " 2.007 

" from Hungary, - - - " 1.151 " 2.644 

Tlie soil from the forest was full of organic detritus, 



140 LAND DRAINAGE. 

being mixed vath milk of lime up to the alkaline reaction, 
and then dried, absorbed : 

Potash, - - grains, 0.987 

Silica, - - " 3.169 

Liebig thinks that this absorption is owing partly to the 
chemical action of silicates and hydrate of aluminum upon 
the silicate of potassium, and beside that it must be con- 
nected with the physical state of the soil. 

Phosphate of lime, dissolved by means of carbonic 
acid, is entirely retained by the soil; the same happens 
with ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate ; the only soil of 
Tchernosem made an exception with phosphates ; but 
Liebig found that it was saturated with them. 

In view of the above facts, and considering the small 
proportion of mineral substances which are dissolved by 
drain water, from the analysis of Messrs. Way and 
Krocker, Liebig comes to the same conclusions as Mr. 
Way, that manures are presented to plants under a spe- 
cial form, and that on account of the insolubility of the 
new compounds which are formed, there must be in the 
roots a peculiar force, allowing them to select and assim- 
ilate substances which they are unable to obtain from a 
solution. 

Liebig thinks, however, that aquatic plants, such as 
lemna trisulea, the roots of which swim in water without 
direct communication with the soil, are submitted to other 
laws, and absorb their nutriment in a state of solution. 
It was proved by analysis, that it was so, because the Avflter 
in which these plants grow, contains in solution all the 
mineral matter which is found in the ashes. 

The alimentation of plants would not then be as simple 
as physiologists and agriculturists did suppose ; nor would 
it be the same in process for all species. The importance 
of the result in the agricultural point of view, and also 



SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES. 141 

tlie deep interest involved in the study of tlie absorbing 
power of soils, are a sufficient stimulus for renewing and 
enlarging investigations. 

Mr. Boussingault instrusted F. Brustlein, of the Con- 
servatory of Arts of Paris, with the work of continuing 
the investigation. He reports that " it was performed in 
his laboratory, at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers." 
We present a translation of this report : 

"The rapid and perfect exactness with which ammonia is meas- 
ured with Roussingault's apparatus, the importance of this alkali as 
an agent of fertilization, and the identity of its reactions with those 
of the other bases in the soil, suggested the exclusive use of ammo- 
nia for the experiments. 

" Three specimens of soil were tested, and each of them possessed 
a physical character widely different The first, taken from Bechel- 
bronn, is a tenaceous compact clay, rich in carbonate of lime, retain- 
ing water, and when dried, very hard. The second, from Mittel- 
hausborgen, is the lelim (loam) of the fertile neighborhood of Stras- 
bourg, very rich in carbonate of lime, with little plasticity but very 
homogeneous. The third is the soil of Liebfrauenberg's orchard, 
sandy, quartzose, very rich in organic detritus, remains of ancienl 
and very powerful manuring." 

* -x- * * * * 

From the above experiments we may derive the follow- 
ing conclusions : The property of absorbing ammonia by 
arable lands is exclusively dependent on the physical con- 
stitution of the mineral substances, and even on the or- 
ganic matters with which they are formed. This was made 
evident by the action of humus, peat and animal-black 
upon an ammoniacal solution; the former two decompose 
at the same time a noticeable proportion of alkali. The 
existence of a carbonate in the soil is necessary, so that 
the earth may decompose an ammoniacal salt in retaining 
the basis of it; animal -black is possessed of that faculty 
when carbonate of lime has been incorporated. The de- 
composition being stopped strictly at the quantity of salt, 



142 LAND DRAINAGE. 

the ammonia of which has been fixed, the force which 
impels the absorption is powerful enough to provoke this 
double decomposition. 

We know with what readiness ammoniacal salts are de- 
composed in presence. of carbonate of lime. Mr. Bous- 
singault demonstrated that moist carbonate of lime, in 
presence of a fixed salt of ammonia, sets free, in time, 
and dries up all the ammonia in a state of vola- 
tile carbonate ; the same happens, when a very weak 
solution of hydrochloric acid boils in presence of carbo- 
nate of calcium. 

The absorption of ammonia by the soil, in an atmos- 
phere which is loaded with it, is considerable, as stated 
by Mr. "Way. When the air, very limited in ammonia, is 
passed through a long column of earth, the latter absorbs 
almost the whole quantity of the ammonia, and loses it 
again, in great part, by the action of currents of moist 
air. These experiments do not permit us to draw con- 
clusions as to the absorption of ammonia by the earth 
from the atmosphere ; because, in the experiment, when" 
that alkali was most minutely diffused through the air, it 
was found that the air which traversed the apparatus con- 
tained 225 times as much ammonia as the air which cir- 
culates at the surface of the globe. 

With the earth loaded with ammonia, and exposed to 
the air when moistened, there was a production of azotic 
acid ; but this production was not large enough, if we 
compare it with that which took place in the experiments 
on nitrification of arable land, made at Liebfrauenberg, in 
1857, by Mr. Boussingault, so that we can not affirm that 
it Avas owing to the transformation of the volatile alkali. 

The ammonia absorbed by the earth is of great sta- 
bility as long as the earth is dry ; but as soon as water 
intervenes, it causes, by evaporation, the dissipation of the 



SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES. 143 

ammonia. This phenomenon is well known to agricultur- 
ists who park their sheep ; because urine, impregnating 
the earth's surface, putrefies within 24 hours, with a tem- 
perature of 15° centigrade; it then emits ammoniacal 
vapors, which are wastefully rising, unless promptly 
checked by timely plowing. This volatilization of ammo- 
nia in arable land proper, is a fact which was constantly 
observed by Mr. Boussingault, in his researches on the 
atmosphere confined in the soil. 

The earth, according to its richness in ammonia and its 
force of retention, imparts to water greater or lesser 
quantities of alkali, independent, in some measure, of the 
proportion of the liquid. Water, containing very minute 
quantity of ammonia, seems to be endowed with the prop- 
erty of circulating through the soil ; because, in the above 
experiments, water was never entirely deprived of its alkali 
by the earth, even when contained in extremely limited 
proportions. Taking into account the feeble dose of am- 
monia which exists in the soil, its solubility, how small 
soever, and then its difi"usion — knowing that the reactions 
of the other alkalies, except the volatility, are identical 
with those of ammonia — it seems very probable that plants 
select the largest part of their nutriment from very weak 
solutions, in which is found the azotic element, so neces- 
sary to them, in a state of ammonia or nitric acid. It 
can not be doubted that such is the fact ; aquatic vegeta- 
bles stand as a proof of it ; and Boussingault, by beauti- 
ful experiments, did establish that a plant acquires a com- 
plete growth in a soil formed with a sand of pure quartz 
previously calcined, provided it be supplied with nitrate 
of potash, phosphates and alkaline ashes. In this condi- 
tion the vegetable is then compelled to derive its nutri- 
ment from a solution. 



CHAPTER X. 



DRAINAGE PREVENTS "HEAVING OUT," "FREEZING 
OUT," OR "WINTER-KILLING." 

We have frequently heard farmers complain of portions 
of fields, and sometimes of entire fields, that winter crops 
would "winter-kill" or "freeze out" on them. In point 
of fact, we have known of several farms which, in other 
respects, were good farms, sold at a reduced price, because 
certain portions were " spow/?/." This "spoutiness" is 
easily remedied by underdraining. The cause and process 
of freezing out are explained as follows : In places where 
it occurs there is a stratum of clay, or hard pan, at the 
depth of a few inches, or a foot from the surface. This 
stratum is nearly impervious to water. The soil has been 
pulverized by plowing, and absorbs like a sponge the au- 
tumn rains, and the melting snows in the springtime ; it 
not only absorbs but retains these waters, because there 
is no way for them to escape except by evaporation, and 
this takes place to a very limited extent only in cold 
weather. The ground is frozen during the night and the 
w%ater converted into ice ; this process of freezing not 
only severs the smaller roots and sometimes the larger 
ones, but throws up the soil in scales or spicules, thus 
drawing the clover or wheat roots from their beds. When 
a thaw comes, the saturated soil settles down and exposes 
the roots, and a few repetitions of this process, which oc- 
curs every winter, leave the plants dead upon the field in 
the spring. 

Underdraining affords a certain outlet or escape for the 
waters. Winter grain crops seldom suffer from freezing 

(144) 



HEAVING OUT, FREEZING OUT, ETC. 145 

when the soil is dry. We know of several instances where 
"freezing out" was effectually remedied by underdrain- 
ing ; but, as we prefer the evidence of others to our own 
observation, Ave again quote from the Country Geyitleman: 

"A case coming under our observation the past winter will well 
illustrate the subject. A field of five acres, seeded to clover two 
years ago upon rye, owing in part to the presence of snow upon the 
ground the greater part of the first winter and spring, escaped with 
slight injury from this cause, and gave a very good growth of clover. 
But the past winter, the weather being of a different character, the 
grass on about three acres of the field was entirely destroyed, every 
root of clover, being pulled up or thrown out, laid loose upon the 
surface of the ground the present spring. This was an example of 
heaving out' of unmistakable character. 

" The evil lies in a saturated soil. It matters little whether the 
surface be clay or sandy — it did not in the case above mentioned — 
if the subsoil is of an impervious character. We were much sur- 
prised to find in a slight depression, some three or four rods across, 
where the surface soil was a light sand, that the clover was as badly 
winter-killed as on the clayey part of the field; and the clayey part, 
it is well to mention, had good surface drainage from the descent or 
slope of the ground — at least an inch in a foot. This sandy corner 
was underlaid by an impei'vious hard pan, holding water equally as 
well as the clay ; and we believe this will generally be found to be 
the case in all loams which suS'er from heaving or freezing out. 

"We have shown, in a previous article, that ' draining deepens the 
soil,' and hence it is the remedy for freezing out in all cases. Water 
no longer saturates the surface soil in such quantity as to form 
honeycomb ice every time it freezes; the plants are no longer con- 
fined to short roots, but have a better hold upon the soil, and it has 
been found that no loss whatever results from this cause, however 
unfavorable the season, on a thoroughly drained soil. 

"A little testimony on this point may not be out of place here. 
Maxwell Brothers, of Geneva, tell us, in the Transactions of the 
iV; T. State Agricultural Societi/, for 1855, about draining a clay 
field, which previously could not be worked for spring crops in sea- 
son for sowing, and heaved so badly as to ruin winter crops, which 
draining has rendered as mellow and productive as can be desired, 
so that they can cultivate immediately after heav}'' rains, and grow 
wheat and clover without loss from frost. John Johnston, of Seneca 

14 



146 LAND DRAINAGE. 

county, has given pointed evidence on the subject By draining ho 
has so improved his clayey farm that no loss is suflFered from this 
cause, though formerly it vras a source of great injury to the crops 
in the low lands, entirely ruining wheat, and destroying it in many 
places upon the higher parts of the farm. Many like cases of the 
beneficial results of draining in this respect could be given, were it 
needful." 



CHAPTER XI. 



DRAINAGE PREVENTS INJURY FROM DROUGHT. 

The year 1854, was a year of severe drought in the 
state of Ohio. But notwithstanding the drought there 
were some excellent crops grown in the state. Mr. Crosby, 
of Ahstabula county, states (under oath) that in that year 
he grew three acres in wheat, which produced thirty 
bushels per acre. Messrs. F. and W. Donaldson, of Cler- 
ment county, grew thirty-two bushels per acre. Mr. J. 
A. Webster, of Meigs county, produced thirty-six and one 
third bushels per acre, on 4J acres, and Mr. A. Edgel, of 
Washington county, produced thirty-eight and one third 
bushels per acre, on three acres, Avhile G. Dana and son, 
of the same county, produced thirty-six bushels per acre, 
on nine acres. These gentlemen have all made their state- 
ments under oath. In their account of culture they unan- 
imously state that they plowed deep. 

In the same year, Mr. Standiford, of Allen county, states 
that he produced ninety-four bushels of corn per acre. 
Mr. Chaffee, of Ashtabula county, ninety-two bushels. 
Mr. Hewitt, of Hancock, ninety-five and one half bushels 
per acre, and Mr. C. Shepard, of Washington, one hun- 
dred and eight bushels per acre. The statements of these 
gentlemen are subscribed under oath, and they all agree 
that they that season plowed deep. 

"We recollect," says the Genesee Farmer, "walking through a 
magnificent field of corn on the thoi'oughly underdrained farm of 
our friend John Johnston. One of the underdrains was choked up, 
and there the crop was a failure. Corn delights in a loose, dry, 
warm soil. If it is surcharged with water, all the sunshine of our 
hottest summers can not make it warm, and all the manure that 

M471 



148 LAND DRAINAGE. 

can be put on it will not make the corn yield a maximum crop. In 
passing along the various railroads, we have often been saddened to 
see thousands of acres of land planted to corn, which, by a little un- 
derdraining, would have produced magnificent crops of this grandest 
of cereals, but which presented a miserable spectacle of yellow, sickly, 
stunted, half-starved plants, struggling for very life. We have ever 
))cen willing to apologize for the shortcomings of American farmers. 
We know the difficulties under which many of them labor. We do 
believe them to be, as a whole, 'intelligent and enterprising.' But 
these sickly cornfields are well calculated to create a very dift'erent 
impression. We have frequently to repeat the German proverb — 
' to know is not to be able.' These farmers know how to raise good 
corn, but they are not always able to put in practice improved 
methods of cultivation. There is scarcely a plant which does not 
thrive much better in a loose, deep soil, than in a shallow, compact 
one ; but in no case is this fact susceptible of more ready verifica- 
tion than in the corn plant." 

One instance only may be cited to illustrate the effects of deep 
culture. There is in the immediate vicinity of Columbus a tract 
of " Scioto bottom land'' which has for upward of forty years been 
cultivated in corn annually. In 1851, Mr. John L. Gill of Colum- 
bus, anxious to test the eflect of deep culture on corn, plowed eleven 
acres and about three fourths, to a depth of about eight inches, with 
a double plow, and then followed with a subsoil plow, loosening but 
not turning up the soil, to a depth of eight inches more. This tract, 
as well as the neighboring one, had never been plowed to a depth 
exceeding six or seven inches. In 1851, the neighboring pieces 
were plowed the usual depth, and the planting completed on the 7th 
of May ; Mr. Gill completed the planting on the 10th. 

In the course of three weeks the corn in the neighboring tracts 
appeared as forward and thrifty as usual, M'hile that of Mr. Gill 
appeared pale and rather dwarfed ; this, to say the least, was rather 
discouraging. But in the month of July, that in the neighboring 
fields appeared to have come to a ' stand still ;' the leaves curled and 
drooped, and gave unmistakable manifestations of sufierings from 
drought, while Mr. Gill's was growing vigorously, and indicated no 
lack of moisture. The result was that Mr. Gill obtained 120 bushels 
per acre, while the adjoining fields yielded less than forty bushels 
per acre. This fixct is well authenticated, and the field was wit- 
nessed in July and August by thousands of persons. 

While the stalks in Mr. Gill's tract presented a pale and sickly 



INJURY FROM DROUGHT. 149 

appearance, the roots were pushing downward in search of moisture 
and nourishment; finding abundance of this, a suiBcient supply was 
stored for the growth of the plant to resist all effects of drought. 
That in the neighboring fields exhausted the supply at first, and 
when the drought set in it had no store of supply to fall back upon. 

If then deep plowing will secure a good crop in a pe- 
riod of drought, how much more may not be secured by 
underdraining ? 

The reason why drainage prevents injury from drought 
is to be found in the fact that draining " deepens the 
soil," and " lengthens the season." It is a well-known 
fact that a deep and mellow soil retains moisture much 
better than a shallow and compact one. 

" ' Water is held in the soil between the minute particles of eartli. 
If these particles be pressed together compactly, there is no space 
left between them for water.' Compact subsoils are but little per- 
meable to water, compared with the same when broken up, pulver- 
ized and mellowed. The one is porous and drinks in moisture like 
a sponge; the other absorbs it but in small quantities, and readily 
parts with the same on the application of heat. The one takes it 
from the air, which passes freely through it; the other, impervious 
to the air, or any slightly powerful influences, remains unchanged. 
Undrained soils, as we have shown, become compact after heavy 
rains, by the evaporation of the water with which they are satur- 
ated ; drained soils, on the contrary, become more porous from the 
filtration of the same amount of moisture into the drains below. 

" Draining prevents injury from drought, by giving a better growth 
to plants in the early summer. Seed sown on any soil containing 
stagnant water, sends no roots below that water line, but may for a 
while grow well from roots near the surface. But let drought come, 
the water line sinks rapidly, the roots having no depth to seek mois- 
ture below, are parched and burned, and without rain, the crop is 
irreparably injured. On a drained and deepened soil the roots go 
down without obstruction, and are thus prepared to withstand the 
effects of the long-continued dry weather so often experienced. 
That they wi41 do so, a thousand facts in the experience of the farmer 
•will prove to him that observes them." 

A correspondent from Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, writ- 



150 LAND DRAINAGE. 

ing over the signature of B. B., to the Country Gentle- 
man, in July, 1854, says : 

" There arc many portions of high ground in the neighborhood of 
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, and along the Monongahela river, remark- 
able for its productive qualities. For many years past, in has been 
observed that those high hills, vrith ordinary cultivation, produce 
better crops of every kind, and grow superior fruit, to the bottom 
land in the same region. Many of the farmers would smile if told 
that the rich qualities of their land might be attributed to under- 
draining. The idea of draining hills from one hundred to three 
hundred feet elevation, they would consider ridiculous, from the 
fact that no swampy or moist land can there exist, and instead of at- 
tempting to drain it, some invention should be had to retain the 
moisture. This very invention they have in the most superior kind 
of underdraining." 

" These hills comprise a portion of the coal region of Pennsylva- 
nia, and cover most generally two strata of bituminous coal. The 
first, about from thirty to sixty to sixty feet from the upper surface, 
from four to five feet in thickness; and the second, at the distance 
of about sixty feet beneath the first, of from five to seven feet in 
thickness. The first strata, upon account of its depth, as well as its 
quality, is but little worked at the present time, where the second is 
accessible ; and in the immediate neighborhood of Pittsburg, where 
the first 'crops out,' the second alone is worked. From the quality 
of this coal, and the great demand for it in all parts of the country, 
an immense number of tuns are annually extracted — completely un- 
dermining many acres of surface, forming mammoth underdrains ; 
and, as a number of acres are taken out, the whole hill is let down — 
not together in one mass, but broken and mangled by the pillars and 
supports left by the miners. So that, when the coal from any one 
hill is extracted and the pits abandoned, the soil upon its surface 
will have all the advantages of the best underdraining; and not 
draining of two or three feet in depth, but of from ten to an hundred 
feet ; and, the ground being loosened to such a depth, it is almost 
impossible that it should sufi"er from drought. I have no doubt but 
this is one of the causes of the great crops on some of our hills. 

" The drought at this time (July 17) is truly excessive, not a par- 
ticle of moisture apparent in the ground to the depth of eighteen 
inches ; and the summer thus far has been so dry as to almost check 
the entire growth of all kinds of spring crops. The farm I cultivate 



INJURY FllOM DROUGHT. 151 

consists of about forty acres, all of Avhich, excepting about ten acres, 
is undermined and underdrained by the taking out of the coal to the 
depth of from ten to one hundred feet. My crop of hay above the 
undermining has averaged over two tuns to the acre, vrhile a 'rich 
bottom' of one of my neighbors did not produce one half the quan- 
tity. 

"Again, I have planted upon the underdrained portion about three 
acres of corn, and on the same place, below the draining, in a rich 
garden, deeply spaded, there is planted a bed of the same kind of 
corn. The latter has received careful garden culture, and the 
former, planted on clover sod, the common field culture. The first 
looks as if it wanted rain badly, but still has a good color and healthy 
appearance ; but the leaves of the latter look more like torches or 
fancy cigars, so closely have they wrapped themselves up, than any 
growing vegetable. The product of hay, as well as the present ap- 
pearance of the corn, can be, partly at least, attributed to the uuder- 
draining. i 

" These advantages are still more apparent upon the growing of 
fruit. Formerly the bottom land was always sought after for gar- 
dens and orchards. A few years since an enterprising man fixed 
upon the top of one of our highest hills (Mount Washington.) He 
now brings the first, largest and best fruits to market, and gets the 
highest price. His land is undernmled, and I understand he attrib- 
utes his success greatly to this fact." 

Another correspondent says : 

* * " Last spring I was induced to undertake a trial of under- 
draining in my garden. The soil Avas originally pretty hard clay, 
though it has been made lighter and more friable of late years by 
additions of muck, chip-dirt, manure, etc. The time for making 
garden being close at hand, and the materials not being conveniently 
to be had, 1 was able to drain only about half of my garden, and I 
was thus, though unintentionally, provided with the means of com- 
paring contiguous portions of similar land, one portion being drained 
and the other not. The portion that was drained was obviously su- 
perior to the other in several respects. 1. Tt was sooner dry or in 
a condition to be worked than the undrained. In this respect 
the draining has, both last spring and this one, made my clay-soil 
garden almost as early as those on sandy soils. This I consider a 
great advantage, as it enables me to get in seeds a week or two 
earlier. 2. During the long term of dry weather last summer, the 



152 LAND DRAINAGE. 

things growing upon the drained portion did not suffer so much, in 
the way of being wilted, pale and stunted in growth, as the plants 
did on the undrained section. I had thus occular demonstration 
that drained land will suifer less from drought than undrained. 3. 
In the case of a few crops which 1 raised on both portions, for the 
sake of comparing them, T made myself quite sure that on the 
drained portion the peas, etc., ripened a few days earlier, and were 
a little plumper or better than the same crops from the same kind 
of seed, and with the same kind of treatment, on the undrained." 

"In the long drought of 1854, in New England, a pertinent case 
is mentioned, where two neighbors farmed adjoining fields precisely 
alike, with the exception of depth of plowing. One plowed four 
inches deep, and grew oats weighing but seventeen pounds per 
bushel ; while the other, plowing nine inches deep, raised oats 
weighing thirty pounds per bushel. The proper depth of plowing 
depends, we think, considerably upon the character of the subsoil, 
and the condition of the land as to drainage. A porous subsoil 
would admit of the rising of moisture from below, while a hard pan 
or clayey soil would need to be plowed to a greater depth, so as to 
prepare it for taking all possible aid from slight rains, the dews, and 
the moisture of the air. A well-drained soil would present the same 
general characteristics of one with a porous subsoil." 

" At a Legislative Agricultural Meeting, held in Albany, New 
York, January 25, 1855, 'the great drought of 1854' being the 
subject, the secretary stated that ' the experience of the past season 
has abundantly proved that thorough drainage upon soils requiring 
it, has proved a very great relief to the farmer ;' that ' the crops upon 
such lands have been far been better, generally, than those upon 
undrained lands in the same locality;' and that, 'in many instances, 
the increased crop has been sufficient to defray the expenses of the 
improvement in a single year." ' 

" A committee of the New York Farmei-s' Club, which visited the 
farm of Prof Mapes, in New Jersey, in the time of the severe drought, 
in 1855, reported that the professor's fences were the boundaries 
of the drought, all the lands outside being affected by it, while his 
remained- free from injury. This was attributed, both by the com- 
mittee and by Prof Mapes himself, to thorough drainage and deep 
tillage with the subsoil plow. 



CHAPTEK XII. 



DRAINAGE IMPROVES THE QUANTITY AND QUALITY 
OF THE CROPS. 

That drainage increases the quantity of the crops, is 
confirmed by every one who has practiced it to any ex- 
tent. The writer of " Talpa, or the Chronicles of a Clay 
Farm" states that underdrainage increased the products 
of a heavy clay farm 27 per cent. Almost all English 
writers on drainage agree that thorough drainage increases 
the products to such an extent that the net increase alone, 
in two or three years, is sufficient to pay all the expense 
incurred in underdraining. The instances on record de- 
monstrating the increase in crops by underdraining, are 
sufficiently numerous to make an ordinary-sized volume. 
From the mass of them we select the following, from Eng- 
land, Germany, and several states in the union, in order 
to show that climate and culture have not played so im- 
portant a part in connection with drainage as some have 
intimated. Much, very much, is due to culture, but more, 
in many instances, is due to underdrainage ; because the 
best of culture on a stiff" clay soil will not produce as 
great a result as will underdraining. 

In the first volume of the Royal Agricultural Journal, 
p. 31. Sir James Graham, bart., states that " a field which 
he took into his own management Avas let at 4s. Gd. per 
acre; it was pasture of the coarsest description, overrun 
with rushes and other aquatic plants. After draining and 
subsoil plowing, at an outlay of £6 18s. 4d. per acre, it 
was let to the incoming tenant, on a fourteen-years lease, 

(153) 



154 LAND DRAINAGE. 

at 20s. per acre — yielding an annual interest of rather 
more than 11 per cent, on the outlay." In vol. 2, p. 276, 
Mr. J. Burke states that " Mr. Denison, of KihiAvick Percy, 
■purchased about 400 acres of rabbit warren, of an appa- 
rently sterile sand, wi-th a heavy ferruginous subsoil ; 
the hills covered vfith. heather, and the hollows with a bed 
of marshy aquatic plants ; and of which the cultivation 
had been abandoned, as it was found, although pared and 
burnt, not to produce more than three quarters per acre 
of oats, and was let at 2s. 6d. per acre. After having 
been subsoiled, plowed, and drained with tiles and soles, 
at a cost of £5 4s. 8d. per acre, exclusive of the carriage, 
and manured in the common way, it produced ten and a 
half quarters of Tartarian oats per acre, and now bears 
wheat and oats, on a property which was formerly con- 
sidered useless." 

It is also stated in the same page, " that some land be- 
longing to Rev. Mr. Croft, of Hatton Bushell, which was 
not worth 5s. per acre, is now let at 21s., evidently from 
the effect of drainage, and by the breaking up of the moor 
pan." 

In the succeeding pages he continues : "I have, more- 
over, the authority of the Marquis of Tweeddale for stat- 
ing that the increased product of his home farm at Tes- 
ter, in Scotland, has been nearly two thirds on most of 
the crops, and in some cases much more, upon all the land 
which has been subsoiled and drained. One field, indeed, 
which his lordship declares to have formerly carried only 
17 bushels of oats per acre, has given 67 bushels of bar- 
ley, after having been trench-plowed and drained." He 
goes on to state : " These improvements, by means of 
drainage, although clearly evincing its importance, both 
to "the landlord in the increased value of his property, and 
to the farmer in the production of his crops, are yet less 



QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF CROPS. 155 

decisive than what I shall here briefly attempt to describe. 
The extra- parochial place of Teddesley Hay, in Stafford- 
shire, is the residence of Lord Hatherton, and contains 
2,586 acres. It was originally part of the forest of Can- 
nock, and, with the exception of two anciently inclosed 
parks, it continued uninclosed until 1820, when the whole 
became, either by allotment or purchase, the property of 
his lordship. The extent of the farm lands is 1,832 acres, 
comprising a range of high and dry hills to the east, ad- 
joining Cauk Chase, which hills were formerly a rabbit 
warren, covered with heath or fern. Having heard this 
tract of land below the hills mentioned as exhibiting in a 
striking manner the results of judicious draining, and 
employment of the water so obtained, I visited the place, 
in the latter end of May, 1841. I was conducted over it 
by Mr. Bright, the respected land steward, who gave me 
the following statement; and in riding through the farm, 
which then presented the appearance of the most luxuri- 
ant vegetation, described to me the condition of the land 
in 1820. The larger park, which had been long divided 
into fields, was ill cultivated, and the lesser park might be 
fairly viewed as one bed of rushes, and in the lower parts 
alder ; the whole consisted generally of a light soil, rather 
inclined to peat, the subsoil being chiefly a stiff clay. 

Some very deep drains were made in the larger park, which 
was effectually drained, and from which large volumes of 
water now issue; as soon as the inclosure was completed, 
other deep drains were made, and for the most part with 
excellent effect ; things were in this state when Mr. Bright 
became agent to Lord Hatherton; he immediately con- 
ceived the notion of putting a portion of the waste allot- 
ments, and the Avhole of the lesser park, containing a sur- 
face of nearly 600 acres, through a regular course of 
thorough drainage, and afterward collecting the whole of 



150 LAND DRAINAGE. 

the drain water into tAvo main channels, with the double 
intention of conducting one of them through the farm- 
yard, for the purpose of obtaining by it a water power 
for various objects connected with the estate, and then 
employing it, in conjunction with the other stream, in 
making an extensive tract of upland water meadow. It 
must, however, be acknowledged to have been a bold at- 
tempt, which could only have been conceived by a com- 
prehensive mind, and a man of great practical knowledge ; 
but it was liberally seconded by his noble e'mployer, and 
has been accomplished with admirable success, as the fol- 
lowing statement of the improvement by drainage, and 
the expenditure during ten years preceding 1841, upon 
such parts of the estate as have been drained, will suffi- 
ciently explain. The original value of 467A. OR. 9P. 
was £254 10s. 9d. ; expenditure, £1,508 17s. 4d. ; im- 
proved value, £689 13s. Id. ; showing an improved an- 
nual value of £435 2s. 4d. These lands having been 
effectually drained, Mr. Bright's next object was to collect 
so much of the drain water as the levels permitted into 
two main carriers, for the purpose of employing them as 
a power to turn a mill-wheel, and afterward to be em- 
ployed in irrigation. For the former object, a small re- 
servoir has been constructed, at a favorable level, about 
half a mile distant from the farm ; here, at the farm-yard, 
a mill has been built, which does infinite credit to Mr. 
Bright ; the stream of water was, of course, not sufficiently 
powerful to turn an undershot wheel, and to enable 
it to act with force, it was necessary to bring it out to the 
upper part of a wheel of thirty feet diameter ; this wheel 
has been placed in the rock, thirty-five feet deep, and the 
headway has been carried from the bottom through the 
rock, and comes out in a valley below, at the distance of 
five hundred yards. The mill and this channel for the water. 



QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF CROPS. 157 

costs very little more than £1,000 ; it works a threshing ma- 
chine, cuts hay and straw, and kibbles oats and barley for 
the stock, consisting of about two hundred and fifty-horses 
and cattle, grinds malt, and also turns a circular saw, 
which does a great part of the sawing for a large estate. 
The annual saving by this machine has been estimated 
at about £400, and it is still intended to apply the power 
to other purposes. From this wheel, and from another 
siijjjall carrier, which is made to pass immediately under 
the farm-yard (where all the urine and moisture that 
runs from the manure is carefully collected in a reservoir 
which overflows into the carrier), the water has been con- 
ducted over lands, principally uplands, containing alto- 
gether eighty-nine acres, at an expenditure of only £224 
4s. lOd., by which an improvement of £2 per acre has 
been effected, or £178 per annum. This is Mr. Bright's cal- 
culation, but it is difficult to estimate the importance of 
such an acquisition as eighty-nine acres of productive 
water meadow to a large farm like this, on which there 
is (especially on the upper part of it) a great quan- 
tity of very dry and thin soil. I know no other place in 
which drain water has been turned to such good account. 
Luckily the water is all soft, and good for irrigation : 

TOTAL IXCREASE IX VALUE COLLECTED. 

£ s. (1. f 8. (1. 

Lands underdrained, present value, - - 689 13 1 
Original value, 254 10 9 



435 2 4 

Estimated saving by mill, - - - 400 

Increase in value of water meadows, - 178 



Being an increased value of - - £1,013 2 4 

Resulting only from draining 467 acres, and employ- 
ment of the drain water over 89 acres of land ; aff'ording 



158 LAND DRAINAGE. 

a clear annual interest on tlie outlay of full thirty-seven 
per cent., as will be seen the following 

SUMMARY OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE. 

Underdraining, as per statement, 

Erecting wheel and machinery, 

Irrigation, 



£ 


e. 


a. 


1,508 


17 


4 


1,000 





U 


224 


4 


10 



£2,733 2 2 
Mr. Herman Wauer, a draining engineer in Prussia, 
says, in his work on drainage : " Two years ago I under- 
drained a plat of 37 acres of sandy clay, at an expense 
of 324 tlialers (|216 U. S. currency). The two years pre- 
ceding, the potato crop was so badly rotted that it did not 
pay the expense of planting and harvesting. The year 
preceding the draining, it was put in rye and produced 
the miserable amount of 6 bushels per acre, and half of 
that was chess and cockle. After it was drained it was 
sowed in oats, and produced 900 bushels of oats, which 
were sold for 500 thalers ($333 33). The next year it 
produced 5,400 bushels of potatoes, which were sold for 
1,500 thalers (|1,000). The present year (1859) the crop 
of barley which it produced was excellent, but as it is not 
yet threshed I can not give the figures. The clover which 
is now appearing on it gives promise of a very heavy 
crop." 

But the most remarkable example of the increase of 
crops by drainage is that of a domain in Hanover. A 
tenant leased it in 1844. The tract contained an area of 
3,000 acres of heavy wheat land — all of it in an arable 
condition — and, notwithstanding the rent appeared to be 
very low, yet several successive tenants became bankrupt 
on it. But the last, or new tenant, was an intelligent agri- 
culturist, who had thoroughly studied and learned how to 
drain in England, and he saw at a glance what was neces- 



QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF CROPS. 159 

sary to produce good crops. He employed a drainer, and 
in the course of several years underdrained the entire 
tract, and, as he held the lease for some years, accumu- 
lated an ample fortune on it. There was one tract on this 
domain of 82J acres (110 morgen) which gave the follow- 
ing results : 

In 1842 it lay fallow, because it was too wet to work in 
seeding time. 

In 1843 it was sowed in vetches, but, as the excessive 
moisture destroyed most of these, they were plowed down, 
the land manured, and rape was sowed. This crop, in 
1844, scarcely paid for seeding and harvesting, having 
been badly "winter- killed" and soured. It was then 
drained, and produced the following increased crops, as 
the direct result of drainage : 

In 1845 it produced 1,944 bush, wheat, worth 4,860 thalers ($3,240) 

1846 " 1,008 " peas, " 1,400 " (933 33) 

1847 " 1,872 " rye, " 4,992 " (3,328 00) 

1848 " 2,304 " oats, " 896 " (597 00) 

1849 " 8,568 " potatoes, " 3,570 " (2,380 00) 
I have been unable to procure returns of the subsequent 

crops. The tile were brought from England, and this, of 
course, enhanced their cost. They cost, delivered on the 
domain, 25 thalers for morgen (|22 21 per acre), in the 
aggregate $1,833. It will be seen that the increased 
amount of the first crop was almost double the entire ex- 
pense incurred in underdraining. 

This is, perhaps, the most remarkable case on record 
of increased productiveness in consequence of under- 
draining. 

The following was communicated by Mr. James M. 
Trimble, of Highland county, Ohio, to the Ohio Farmer. 
The farm on which the mole plow, or ditchei', was used is 
situated in Fayette county, Ohio : 



160 LAND DRAINAGE. 

" Mr. Johnston's answer to my letter of inquiry, published in the 
Farmer, did not reach me until I had purchased the implement, 
with the right to use it; else I should have hesitated, and, perhaps, 
not bought it. Having witnessed the operation of the ditcher, drawn 
by a pair of cattle, cutting at the rate of 125 rods of ditch, 3 feet 4 
inches deep, in a single day; comparing this work with friend John- 
ston's statement of a 20 horse power engine being required to operate 
it, I came to the conclusion that my friend, !n his great zeal, as the 
advocate of tile drainage, could not appreciate the mole plow as a 
substitute. This, coupled with the cost of tile drains, on a farm of 
over 1,700 acres, four fifths of which requires underdraining, deter- 
red mo from the use of tile, and induced me to give the mole plow, 
at least, a fair trial, before throwing it aside. To accomplish this, J 
purchased an accurate instrument to begin with — an engineer's 
level — and with it ascertained the level of the lapd to be drained. 

" The farm lies on Rattlesnake, the creek running through it from 
north to south, parallel with and at 75 rods from the east, and 350 
to 400 rods from the west line of the survey. There being but little 
fall to the creek, and the banks low, I had some difBculty in procur- 
ing the necessary fall to my open drains, to give a free outlet to un- 
derdrains, confining my operations to some 230 acres of prairie land 
on the west bank of the creek. I laid out my open ditches from the 
creek west, staking them off at every six rods, and marking the depth 
of cut and width of ditch on each stake. In this way I laid off 685 
rods of open ditch, at 80 rods apart, varying in depth from four to 
six feet, and in width from six to eight feet, allowing for slope of 
banks one and three fourths feet to one foot in hight, which was let 
by contract at 05 cents per rod, and finished in October, 1858. The 
underdrains were cut in March, April and May. My son superin- 
tending the work, he laid off his drains with the level, staking them 
off more with the view of tapping the wettest portions of land be- 
tween the open ditches, than a regard to straight lines or thorough 
underdraining. In this way, with the ditcher, two yoke of cattle 
and two men, in 16 days, he put in 1,500 rods of underdrain, at a 
depth of three feet four inches, and a cost of $65. 

"At the time of running the mole plow, the surface of the ground 
was covered with water, from one to six inches deep. The surface 
soil, to the depth of from one to two and a half feet, is a black claj. 
or loam, rather a compact, tenacious soil; the subsoil is a close, com- 
pact, yellow clay, to the depth of from three to five feet. We fol- 
lowed the ditcher, with a large Illinois sod plow, a steel plow on 



QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF CROPS. 161 

wheels, drawn by three yoke of cattle, one of Garrett and Cotman'a 
steel sod plows, a No. 8, drawn by three horses, and four steel sod 
plows, same make as No. 4, with a pair of horses each, and broke 
the sod up from six to eight inches deep, turning the furrows flat, 
which was first harrowed — 200 acres of it — with the furrows, and 
then crosswise. It was then marked out, four feet apart, and with 
Brown's Illinois corn-planter planted in corn, checkered so as to be 
cultivated both ways. During the time of planting we broke some 
30 acres which had been partially underdrained; the sod being 
tough and the ground very dry, it broke up rough and uneven — so 
much so that it Avas planted (without harrowing or marking out) 
about the 2d to the 4th of June. 

" Our first planting was finished the 23d of May. On the 4th of 
June it was up (with the exception of what the cutworms destroyed), 
and from six to sixteen inches high. The frost on the morning of 
the 5th laid it all level with the ground. The largest corn seemed 
to be most injured; and on the 6th the work of plowing up and re- 
planting was commenced and continued, until the 200 acres were all 
replanted. The crop was worked three times over with double- 
shovel plows ; the fourth and last time with single shovels. The 30 
acres last planted were not cultivated in any way. The weather, 
from May 23 to September 10, was warm and dry — not to exceed 
half an inch of rain fell during that time. The corn was all cut up 
and put in shocks twelve hills square, making about 23 shocks to the 
acre. We have husked over 100 shocks, and feel confident that the 
entire crop on the 200 acres will average 60 bushels per acre; and 
the 30 acres not cultivated will yield 40 bushels per acre. The un- 
derdrains all performed their work well up to the middle of July, 
when they began to fail, and by the 1st of August were perfectly 
dry. I have been on the farm from the 3d up to the 25th of Novem- 
ber, during which time we have had several hard rains ; and I have 
examined the outlets to all of the underdrains, which, without a 
single exception, are passing off large quantities of water. From a 
close observation during the summer, I am satisfied that the under- 
drains were quite as important to the growing crop during the 
drought, from May to September, as they were in carrying off the 
surplus water in the spring ; and I am equally certain that the in- 
crease of crop, resulting from draining; is all of 20 bushels per acre, 
which would leave the account stand thus : 685 rods open ditch, at 
65 cents per rod, $445 25; 1,500 rods of underdrain cost $65; use 
of ditcher, wear and teai-, $25 75; entire cost, $536. Cr., by 20 
15 



162 LAND DRAINAGE. 

bushels of corn, on 230 acres, give 4,600 bushels, at 25 cents, $1,150; 
showing a profit of $614 in favor of the mole plow, in a single year. 
It would seem superfluous to give the details of so plain an opera- 
tion, as I have done; yet I am aware of the fact that, in many in- 
stances, in the immediate neighborhood of my farm, the use of the 
mole plow has been condemned, from the fact of improper use, not 
procuring sufficient outlet, running the ditches too shallow, and fail- 
ing to reach the clay subsoil with the mole. I have no foith in the 
use of the implement without a clay subsoil for the mole to operate 
in ; otherwise, the aperture made by the mole will cave and fill up. 
I have purchased an additional ditcher, and intend to carry on my 
operations until I have underdrained my farm — at least, all that 
portion requiring drainage." 

Mr. Nathaniel Spalding, of Vermont, purchased a small 
farm, consisting of twenty-five acres, brook meadow, of 
clayey soil; some part of it approaching to swamp muck; 
and 17 acres upland, of cobble stone surface, in wood and 
pasture — 42 acres in all. Mr. Spalding said that he bought 
it at auction, and moved on to it in 1853 — price $460. 
" An old shell of a house and barn " (to use his own ex- 
pression) was then upon it, " and some parts of the mea- 
dow so Avet that a team could not be driven over it to get 
what little poor hay grew upon it." There was but little 
of it that could be plowed to advantage. From eight to 
ten tuns water grass of poor quality was the produce of 
the first year's hay crop. Mr. Spalding says he has made 
over 600 rods of drain. Main ditches, three feet wide, and 
from three to six feet deep ; the bottom of the drains are 
boards; space 12 inches square, covered with flat stones, 
with shavings from the lumber with which he was erect- 
ing new buildings, and hemlock brush, thrown into the 
drain upon the covering "stones, and then filled with earth. 
The cost of these main ditches averages 62J cents per rod. 
His cross drains, leading into the main ones, are four rods 
apart, 15 inches wide, stones (cobbles) thrown in loose, cov- 



QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF CROPS. 163 

ered with brush, and filled with earth. The cost of these 
cross drains, 30 cents per rod. 

Mr. Spalding thinks the increase of production for the 
two years following the draining, paid the whole expense 
of making these drains. He is undoubtedly correct in his 
estimates, for this work was performed by himself and 
boys. Had he employed other labor, or contracted it out, 
at the high prices farm labor has commanded of late, it 
would hardly have done it ; but he is a man that never 
puts his hand to the plow and looks back. He is emphat- 
ically a practical man, carrying out whatever he under- 
takes with an energy and skill known to those only of like 
determination. Above these drains where clover and 
timothy now grow so heavy as to lodge, a poor miserable 
water grass grcAV, scarcely worth the cutting and housing. 

Mr. Spalding says the production of these 25 acres in 
1857, only four years from the time he commenced on the 
farm, was 30 tuns English hay, 350 bushels of CQjrn, and 
250 bushels oats. And this from a soil, though not ex- 
hausted, but so located as to be kept saturated and filled 
with cold spring water, to such a degree as to discourage 
and forbid cultivation only on the driest parts and in the 
driest season. 

We found the following in " a paper," without credit, 
but presume it was written by Luther Tucker, of the 
Country Gentleman: 

" We wish to give additional evidence to the value of under- 
draining, by reporting all accurately stated experiments. Having 
recently made some on a small scale, we add them to the list. The 
land is a strong loam in Cayuga county, a medium between a heavy 
clay and a light loam. The drains were cut two feet nine inches 
to three feet deep, two rods apart, and completed with tubular tile 
two inches in diameter. The work being done where the proprietor 
could not oversee it, cost 40 cents a rod, or $32 per acre. 

" The crops on this drained land, the present season, were corn 



164 LAND DRAINAGE. 

and spring wheat — and beinsi cultivated by a tenant, did not, of 
course, receive the best treatment. A portion of the cornfield was 
on a strip of undrained land. The season proving unusually favor- 
able for the latter, but little diflerence could be' perceived till the 
ears had set. It is now found, however, that while the corn on the 
drained land is a least forty bushels of sound shelled corn per acre, 
the undrained portion yields scarcely thirty bushels, and of poorer 
quality. 

'' With the spring wheat (China Tea), however, the disparity is 
greater. Before draining, fifteen bushels per acre was regarded a 
good crop, and uncertain at that. Three scant acres were sown last 
spring on the tile-drained land, and yielded eighty-one bushels — 
equal to twenty-seven bushels per acre. The wheat sold promptly 
for a dollar per bushel — and would probably have brought more 
as seed, as it was unusually fine, weighing 62 lbs. to the measured 
bushel. 

" The time required to repay the cost of draining would, there- 
fore, be as follows : For the corn, the increase being ten bushels 
per acre, at seventy-five cents per bushel, four years would be re- 
quired, if all the seasons were like this. But they are commonly 
more unfavorable — making a greater difference in favor of the 
drains ; the best cultivation would doubtless place the time for full 
repayment within three years. The increase of spring wheat being 
twelve bushels per acre, at a dollar per bushel, repays the cost in 
less than three years." 

It is the unanimous opinion of all who have observed 
closely, that the plants and fruits grown upon under- 
drained soil are more fully developed, and of much better 
quality than those grown on undrained soil. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



DRAINAGE INCREASES THE EFFECTS OF MANURES. 

It has been demonstrated that dew, rain and snow carry 
with them certain fertilizing agents of great importance 
to vegetation, such as carbonic acid, nitric acid, and am- 
monia, or these combined, as carbonate or nitrate of am- 
monia. When the soil is in a condition to receive all the 
water that falls upon it in the form of dew, rain or melt- 
ing snow, these fertilizing agents are carried into the soil 
and immediately absorbed by it, or at once appropriated 
by the growing crop. When the soil is already saturated 
by water, or of a close, impervious character, or when the 
surface is sufficiently inclined, the water is compelled to 
run off, and carry with it, whatever elements of fertility 
it contains. Sandy soils readily receive water, but do not 
as readily absorb gases as soils containing clay or peat. 
Clay lands thoroughly drained and deeply tilled, Avill re- 
ceive almost any amount of water, and absorb and hold 
for the future use of plants, all the gaseous fertilizers the 
water contains. The amount of these fertilizers brought 
down by the rain, differs greatly under different circum- 
stances. The quantity of ammonia is found to be much 
greater near cities than in the open country. The amount 
of nitric acid is greater after thunder storms, and in sea- 
sons when thunder storms are frequent, than at other 
times. 

It has been asserted (but at present appears to be a 
controverted point) that the elements of manure act upon 
plants only in a state of solution ; hence it is of the great- 

(165) 



166 LAND DRAINAGE. 

est importance that they be so applied, and that the soil 
be so prepared that they may not only be readily dis- 
solved by the rain, but that the rain may freely pass 
through the soil, which, acting as a filter, arrests and holds 
these elements where they best serve as food for vegeta- 
tion. On undrained lands the rains dissolve the essential 
portions of the manure and carry them off, or if lands are 
more than ordinarily Avet, it prevents the rotting of the 
manure. Herman Wauer mentions an instance where 
sheep droppings were kept from rotting by moisture for 
the space of five years. This is one great reason why 
manures produce such trifling results on heavy lands, 
especially in seasons of abundant moisture. In very dry 
weather but little more effect follows their application, 
from the Avant of a solvent, such as is ever supplied by 
the water retained in mellow, porous earth. 

" ' Draining renders the land penetrable to water,' says a writer 
on the subject, ' enabling the rain to descend freely through it, car- 
r^'ing to the roots the fertilizing elements with which rain water ia 
always charged,' as well as those it takes in solution from manures. 
The effect of manures is also much increased by an intimate mixture 
with the soil. Such mixture can be but imperfectly obtained in the 
case of hard and shallow land, either in a wet or dry state. It will 
always be found that mellow and friable soils receive most benefit 
from manures, and that clayey soils, if made mellow by draining, 
possess the greatest absorbent powers, and are of the most produc- 
tive character, compared with sandy and light or mucky loams. 

" The true policy of the farmer is to use every means in his power 
for rendering his labor more effectual, and his farm more fertile, and 
in no way can this be better accomplished in the case of wet and 
retentive lands, than by draining^ and thus deepening and increas- 
ing the productive powers of the soil." 

Water from drains has repeatedly been collected and 
analyzed, and that under all imaginable differences of con- 
dition. These examinations have been made for the pur- 
pose of determining to what extent the water of drainage 



TUE EFFECTS OF MANURES. 1G7 

does bear away with it the fertility of the soil. It is found 
that drainage water does carry off, in solution, in appre- 
ciable quantities, the mineral constituents of soils, that it 
would be desirable to retain. As might be expected, the 
amount of loss varies greatly in different circumstances; 
from sterile lands, the amount of nitric acid, or ammonia, 
is less than what is furnished in the rain and snow; while 
on highly manured lands the amount of loss will exceed 
what is obtained from the atmosphere. From lands well, 
tilled, and in a perfectly friable condition, the loss is 
greater than from lands imperfectly tilled. Where a crop 
is growing upon the soil, ready to appropriate whatever 
is presented in the water passing through the soil, less of 
these gases escapes than where the ground is fallow. The 
amount of loss is also found to be much less where the 
drains are deep, than where they are shallow. Some of 
the conclusions arrived at, on this subject, are : That there 
need be no fear that underdraining will rob the soil of its 
fertility, because the rain, which would run from the un- 
derdrained lands and be lost, will either Avholly or par- 
tially compensate for any loss that occurs through the 
drains — that there is no method, except by drainage and 
deep culture, by which stiff, clayey lands can be made to 
appropriate all the elements of fertility furnished by the 
atmosphere — that it is better not to manure excessively, 
at long intervals, because a part of the unappropriated 
manure will probably be washed through the soil and lost, 
and, therefore, it is better to apply manure as it is re- 
quired to meet the present demand. Manure is better 
applied in a liquid state, for if the soil be dry and deep, 
and therefore in a good condition for absorbing manure, 
it will combine with the elements of the soil at once, and 
the surplus of water will run from the deep drains perfectly 
clear and inodorous. It is better never to permit naked 



168 LAND DRAINAGE. 

fallows on such lands, because the soil will be losing more 
through the drain than it gains from the atmosphere ; and 
much more than it will lose, if covered by a growing crop ; 
but on poor, clayey soils, the case is the reverse; and it 
is possible for such soils, while undergoing the comminu- 
tion and exposure of fallowing, to gain more from the at- 
mosphere than they would probably lose from the drains. 
The loss of any fertilizing agent by drainage is wholly 
avoided, however, in countries where drainage and irriga- 
tion are properly and systematically combined. The waters 
from manured and tilled lands, being conducted over the 
meadows below, yield up whatever of fertility they have 
brought with them, and thus nothing is lost. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



DRAINAGE PREVENTS RUST IN WHEAT AND ROT IN 
POTATOES. 

The wheat growers of Ohio have often had the misfor- 
tune to see that which promised a bountiful harvest sud- 
denly blighted by mildew or rust. In regions where a 
gravelly subsoil is found, the wheat crop seldom suffers 
from rust ; but the wheat is frequently "rusted" on grav- 
elly soils which rest upon hard pan, or impervious clays. 
Rust or mildew also most frequently attacks wheat on bot- 
tom lands, where considerable moisture prevails. 

In all our reading and observation we have never heard 
nor seen a well-underdrained field of wheat attacked by 
rust, and therefore infer that drainage acts as a preven- 
tive of this very undesirable phenomenon. 

A series of experiments made in 1857, by H. B. Spen- 
cer, of Rockport, Cuyahoga county, proves almost conclus- 
ively that the rot in potatoes is due to excessive moisture. 
We know numerous instances where potatoes, grown on 
ground having a northern exposure, were sound on the 
most elevated portions of the field, but badly rotted on 
the lower or most moist. One instance we remember 
more particularly, where the potatoes on the hillside were 
all sound, and on the bottom or swale they were not worth 
digging. No case of potato rot on well-underdrained 
ground has come to our knowledge. From this fact, and 
from Mr. Spencer's experiments, we are inclined to be- 
lieve that underdraining will prevent rot in potatoes. 

The fact that drainage lengthens the seasons, will per- 
mit wheat to be sown later in the fall, and thus avoid the 
16 (169) 



170 LAND DRAINAGE. 

ravages of the Hessian fly {eecidomyia destructor), and as 
the wheat will vegetate more rapidly and ripen earlier in 
spring or summer on underdrained ground, therefore the 
ravages of the "midge," "fly," or "weevil" {eecidomyia 
tritici), will be greatly lessened,' if, indeed, not entirely 
prevented. 



CHAPTER XV. 



OTHER ADVANTAGES OF DRAINAGE. 

Drainage is of great advantage in many other respects ; 
among these it may be stated that 

Drainage facilitaies Pulverization. — One object of 
plowing land is to pulverize it, and render it workable. 
Every one knows that a wet soil can never be pulverized, 
and plowing a clayey or loamy soil, when wet, does, per- 
haps, more injury than if it were not plowed at all, be- 
cause, if plowed when wet, the soil is pressed together, 
and is turned over by the plow in almost unbroken slices, 
which become very hard clods when dry, and render it 
difficult of culture. Pulverization of the soil is so essen- 
tial that, more than a hundred years ago, Jethro Tull ad- 
vocated the idea that complete comminution or pulveriza- 
tion of the soil was a complete substitute for manure. In 
fact, the little book recently published by a London house, 
entitled '■^Tillage a Substitute for 3Ianu7'e" is made up 
mainly from the writings of Jethro Tull, The Lois 
Weedon system of culture, by which more than a dozen 
successive good crops of Avheat were harvested from the 
same piece of ground, is simply another application of 
the principle advocated by Tull ; and, while this system 
is not drainage in a direct sense, it undoubtedly partially 
answers the purpose of drainage. Cultivating to the 
depth of th"ee feet, as the Lois Weedon system requires, 
must certainly lower the water line, and thus consummate 
one of the objects of drainage. The deeper any soil is 
cultivated, the better will it produce. 

If the water is withdrawn from the soil, teams can pass 
(171) 



172 LAND DRAINAGE. 

over it with less injury to the soil than on that which is 
not underdrained. The undrained clay, when tramped 
by cattle pasturing, or by being frequently hauled over, 
acquires a consistency to hold water, from which under- 
drained land is exempt. It is a common practice to haul 
manure either in the v;inter or early in the spring, and, 
in many instances, as much injury is done to the land in 
hauling as the manure benefits it. 

Drainage prevetits Surface Washing. — Many plowed 
fields, especially where the land is rolling, suffer greatly 
in spring and fall time, from " wasJdng " by heavy rains. 
On drained lands, the rain is at once absorbed, and wash- 
ing is thus prevented. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



WILL DRAINAGE PAY. 

1st. For the Garden. — With regard to lands designed 
for garden uses, that have a compact subsoil, there can 
not be a doubt of the economy of underdraining. Earli- 
ness and depth of soil are essential to a good garden ; 
and in many localities these conditions can not otherwise 
be secured. Drained lands freeze to a greater depth 
than the undrained, but they are much sooner dry and 
fit for working, or for seed, in the spring. And dull- 
ing the summer, however wet the season, or recent the 
rain, the underdrained land may be worked so soon that 
the weeds do not necessarily get a start. 

Ground that is made dry underneath may be cultivated 
to any desired depth, and may then be brought to any de- 
gree of richness, without the bad efi'ects that sometimes 
follow excessive manuring on shallow soils; and the deeper 
the soil is stirred, the less injury is sustained from drought. 
The expense of draining a garden thoroughly is, there- 
fore, a mere trifle, compared with the benefits that may 
be obtained from the outlay. 

2d. For Nursery Uses, the soil must be susceptible of 
deep, early and frequent tillage. These conditions can 
only be secured on lands having a loose subsoil, or such 
as have been well drained. When drainage is necessary, 
the outlay of $20 or $25 an acre will be more than re- 
turned in a single season. 

3d. The Orchard will pay as well for drainage as the 
garden. The necessity of dry land for the orchard is so 
generally admitted that the highest and driest parts of 
(173) 



174 LAND DRAINAGE. 

the farm are almost everywhere selected for this purpose. 
Orchards planted on river bottoms, in preference to clayey 
uplands, are no exception to this ; for the bottoms, beside 
having the deepest soil have the loosest subsoil, and are 
consequently driest underneath. Apple trees, planted 
over a subsoil that is for a large portion of the year sat- 
urated with moisture, are never thrifty, productive or 
long-lived. Of the various expedients that may be em- 
ployed to secure the growth of an orchard on wet land, 
the cheapest and most reliable is underdrainage. The 
drains should be about three feet below the surface, and 
midway between the rows of trees ; if they are more di- 
rectly under the trees, the roots find their way into the 
drains and ultimately close them. In preparing for an 
orchard, it is desirable to subsoil the ground as deeply as 
possible across the drains before planting. The whole 
expense of such preparation is so inconsiderable, com- 
pared with the value of one year's produce of a good 
orchard, that, even without taking into account the in- 
creased longevity of the trees, there is no question about 
the profitableness of underdraining. 

4th. Tilled Lands. — There are two principal advantages 
derived from the thorough drainage of tilled lands. The 
first is, the lengthening out of the time in which work 
may be done, because the drained lands may be plowed so 
much sooner than the undrained. But the chief benefit 
is the increase of the crop. In Old England the average 
wheat crop has more than doubled since draining was un- 
dertaken in earnest. Results equally favorable, though 
on a smaller scale, have been obtained in the state of New 
York, and also in Ohio. This increase depends not so 
much on larger crops than were ever grown without drain- 
age, but in lessening greatly the causes of failure, so that 



AVILL DRAINAGE PAY. 175 

a fair crop is much more certain. Where the expense of 
drainage is $20 or even $25 an acre, an increase of four 
or five bushels of Avheat to the acre on every crop, or of 
ten or fifteen bushels of corn, would make the drainage an 
excellent investment — far better, indeed, than money 
loaned at ten per cent, per annum. But this is not the 
principal advantage ; for on drained lands a good crop of 
grain is often grown, while on adjoining lands, precisely 
similar and with the same tillage, the crop is a failure, so 
that the difi"erence in one year has exceeded the whole 
expense of the drainage. There is another fact, also, 
worthy of mention : the quality of wheat and other grains 
is greatly improved by the steady growth which good 
drainage secures, the grain being uniformly plumper, thin- 
ner skinned, and therefore heavier. 

5th. Grass Lands. — It is desirable to have pasture lands 
sound and dry, and fit for the tread of animals as soon as 
the feed starts in the spring. It is equally desirable to 
have grasses root deeply, so as to escape the influence of 
summer droughts. It is also advantageous to have lands 
in such a condition that they will produce a variety of 
grasses, which, by their different periods of ripening, will 
keep the pastures fresh through the entire season. Or- 
chard grass and red clover will not prosper unless the soil 
be dry and loose. In meadows that are too wet, the red- 
top will gradually take the place of timothy, and what is 
still worse, wild and innutritious grasses will take the place 
of all the cultivated kinds. 

It is doubtless true that grass will grow upon land too wet 
for any other purpose, but it is a great mistake to suppose 
that land can not be too wet for grass. The best varieties 
of grass, the heaviest crops of hay, and the most uni- 
formly fresh pastures, are to be found on soil properly 
drained. But will it pay to incur an expense of $20 an 



176 LAND DRAINAGE. 

acre for these advantages ? The dairy farmer can readily 
see that it will pay, if, by draining a piece of wet clayey 
land, and afterward subsoiling and seeding with orchard 
grass and clover, he can thereby secure a month's pastur- 
age in the spring, before the grass has started elsewhere, 
and fresh green feed through the months of July and Au- 
gust, while other pastures are all dried up. Good pastur- 
age at such times is certainly worth more to the dairyman 
or any stock farmer than the annual interest on the money 
expended for the improvement. 

It is cheaper to increase crops by drainage than by the 
purchase and cultivation of additional acres. Drained 
lands pay no more tax, cost no more fencing, and require 
no more labor than the undrained. When the cost of 
drainage has once been paid, the increase of crops involves 
no new expense, as would necessarily be the case if the 
same increase were obtained from the cultivation of more 
land. 

Some may be inclined to defer this work of drainage 
until tiles can be obtained at lower rates. It is probable 
that tiles will be cheaper and more readily obtained in a 
few years, but this will only happen if a good demand for 
them is established. The true way to have tiles cheaper 
is to begin to use them wherever it will pay at present 
prices. An increased demand will probably secure a bet- 
ter supply and at lower rates. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



WHAT LANDS NEED DRAINING. 

1. Low Places, Stvamps, etc. — Where the surface is de- 
pressed, and water is received from the surrounding lands, 
the necessity for drainage of some kind is obvious enough. 
This may be effected by open ditches; and these, perhaps, 
are the most economical, where the quantity of water to 
be disposed of is very great. But where ditches would 
be inconvenient, or gradually fill in by frost or the tread- 
ing of cattle, or prove an eye-sore, underdraining may be 
substituted, and, if properly done, with the effect of con- 
verting a low place or swamp into a garden, while a single 
open ditch up the center, which is the usual course, would 
have left the ground wet and cold; for if the water, in its 
descent from the higher ground, be but arrested at the 
edge of the low lands, by ditches or drains, it is compelled 
to traverse the low land to the center ditch, and does its 
mischief before it can escape. Wet and swampy lands, 
when thoroughly drained, are found to be among the most 
productive, and hence their improvement by drainage is 
most marked and satisfactory. 

2. Springy Places. — At the foot of hills, ridges and 
highlands, the water if often found even in a dry time, 
oozing out, not, perhaps, at a single point, or in suffi- 
cient quantity to make a useful spring, but enough to 
make the land for rods or acres around, wet and cold, 
and worthless. In such situations a single drain, in 
the right place, is often sufficient to put an end to the 
mischief, and change worthless into fertile land. But what 
is oftentimes, and in many places, still a greater benefit, 

(177) 



178 LAND DRAINAGE. 

the water which before evaporated injuriously on the sur- 
face is collected by the drain, and made available at a con- 
venient point for stock purposes, forming an artificial 
spring as durable and often more useful than those formed 
naturally. On farms as poorly supplied with stock water 
as many in Ohio, the drainage and improvement of all 
springy places should be effected without delay. 

3. Sandy or Porous Soils tvith Clayey Sahsoils. — Sandy 
soils, as every one must have observed, are not always 
warm and dry. There is sometimes found at the depth 
of a foot, or it may be of two or three feet below the 
surface, a layer of impervious clay, through Avhich no 
water can pass, but on the top of which it must flow, if there 
be an inclination in any direction, with the effect of keep- 
ing the surface constantly damp and cold. In all parts 
of the state such lands may be found ; they appear mel- 
low and rich, but are always cold and weedy, and produce 
no valuable crop. They are much more easily and 
cheaply underdrained than clayey lands, because a differ- 
ent system may be pursued; and when drained, they 
soon lose all their disagreeable and unproductive qualities. 

5. Clayey and Impervious Soils. — Clayey soils trans- 
mit water downward, but slowly; and consequently, in a 
wet time, the surface soon becomes perfectly saturated 
with moisture. It is too wet for crops, too wet to till, 
too wet to bear the tread of animals ; in short, it is too 
wet for anything. In drying, it sets hard, and becomes 
more unmanageable than ever ; the roots of grasses or 
other plants can not penetrate to any considerable depth, 
and clayey lands are therefore the first to suffer from ex- 
cessive drought, as well as from excessive moisture ; there 
is scarcely a season that exactly suits them, and only a 
limited portion of the best of seasons that they can be 
comfortably worked. When such lands are thoroughly 



WHAT LANDS NEED DRAINING. 179 

drained, and at sufficient depth, the surface never becomes 
saturated with moisture ; and in drying it never sets hard. 
A deeper tillage becomes possible, and is indeed required 
to secure the full benefits of the drainage. With the 
deeper tillage, the roots of plants enter the earth to a 
greater depth, and suffer less from drought. Clayey lands, 
Avhen drained, can be worked at almost any time; they 
become more friable in texture, cost less in their culti- 
vation, are suited to almost any crop, and retain their 
fertility longer than lands of almost any other description. 
The writers on the continent of Europe on drainage 
attach great importance to plants, as being the best ex- 
ponents of the quality of the soil, and of its condition. 
Herman Wauer, in his work on Drainage, has compiled a 
list of plants, occupying nearly ten pages of his book. 
He states very positively that whenever any of the plants 
named in the catalogue occur in a field, in observable 
quantities, that that field requires drainage. Almost all 
the German works on drainage contain similar catalogues ; 
these lists of plants have very little or no practical value 
in this country, from the fact that either we have many 
plants which do not appear in Germany, and which are 
equally as good indices as are those named by them, which 
do here ; but upon the whole, not one fourth of the plants 
named by these writers occur here, or else the nomencla- 
ture is so different that we have failed to recognize our 
plants in the lists. 

We translJite the following from Barrall's (France) great 
work (3 vols.) on Drainage : 

" External Signs of the want of Drainage. — The aspect of the 
soil after heavy rains, or great protracted heat, the mode of culture 
and the nature of the vegetation are very conspicuous characteristic 
signs, hy the help of which -we can easily tell that a ground needs 
to be drained. 



180 LAND DRAINAGE. 

'* Whenever after a rain, water stays in the furrows ; wherever stiflF 
and plastic earth adheres to the shoes ; wherever the foot of either 
man or horse makes cavities that retain water, like so many little 
cisterns ; wherever cattle are unable to penetrate, without sinking 
into a kind of mud; wherever the sun forms on the earth a hard 
crust, slightly cracked, and compressing the roots of the plants as 
into a vice ; wherever three or four days after rain, slight depres- 
sions in the ground show more moisture than other parts ; wherever 
a stick, forced into the ground one foot and a half deep, forms a hole 
like a little well, having water standing at its bottom ; wherever tra- 
dition consecrated, as advantageous, the cultivation of lands by 
means of convex, high, large ridges ; one may affirm that drainage 
will produce good effects. 

"When water stands on the surface, after rain, or when it oozes 
from the inside, from below as farmers say, there is no doubt that 
drainage will be the best improvement that can be made. 

" In all the above cases, vegetation can not easily take place ; crops 
are scanty and often amount to notliing; the species of plants which 
find that kind of lands hospitable, signalize them spontaneously to 
the exercised eyes of an observing visitor ; those parasitical plants 
are in possession of wet lands, and often expel therefrom productive 
vegetation ; weeding is of no avail, drainage only can effect the cure 
and restore wholesomeness to the ground, and life to the crops. 

" Upon the ground which was drained at the Agricultural Institute 
at Versailles (farm of the menagerie), and which is composed of 
green clay, of plastic and somewhat calcareous nature, our great 
botanist, M. Boitel, determined the nature of the indigenous growth 
which covered it; this nomenclature may be used as a pattern, and 
therefore we reproduce it. The number 100, in the following table, 
shows the most common kind; the other species have figures lower 
and lower, in proportion as they become more scarce : 



portional fig. 


Latin name of the species. 


Vulgar name. 


100 


Juneus communis, 


Common rush, 


83 


Plantago lanceolata, 


Plantain. 


67 


Colchieum autumnale, 




50 


Equisetum arvense, 




50 


Ranunculus acris ; R. bulbosus, 




50 


Carex riparia, 




50 


Hypericum tetrapterum, 




33 


Ajuga genevensis, 




33 


Cirsium palustre, 





WHAT LANDS NEED DRAINING. 181 

Proportional fig. Latin name of the species. Vulgar name. 

33 Cardamine pratensis, 

33 Agrimonia eupatoria, 

17 Valeriana dioica, 

17 Caltha palustris, 

17 Rumex acetosa; R. erispus, 

1.2 Trifolium pratense ; T. repens, Clover. 

0.8 Orchis latifolia, 

0.4 Anthoxanthum odoratum. 

Mr. Boitel adds : "The animals will readily eat the clover and the 
Anthoxanthum only. One sees in what proportions they are found 
in wet meadows. The other species are mostly of a nature not suited 
for forage and characterize wet lands. The colchicum autumnale is 
known to everybody; from afar its leaves look like those of the large 
leek; its blossoms, of soft, lilac hue, are about three and a half 
inches long, and make their appearance during autumn, after the fall 
of the leaves; its fruit winters in the ground; in the springtime the 
fruit stretches out and sprouts, sui-rounded with large, compressed 
leaves ; it is a plant very poisonous, which cattle are careful not to 
touch ; they eat it, nevertheless, at the stable, when mingled with 
hay ; a very small portion will then poison and kill them. This 
noxious plant is very common in wet meadows ; it is dangerous, and 
occupies the place of a great many others that would be profitable. 
In order to destroy it, dig out the bulbs or onions, and thereby pre- 
vent the seeds from disseminating themselves over the whole meadow. 
The bulbs, being sunk about eight inches into the ground, would 
cause their extraction to be difficult, but the produce of an abundant 
and better vegetation will shortly compensate trouble and expenses. 
" Together with this plant, rushes, ranunculacea, sorrel, etc., are cer- 
tain indications of the utility of drainage ; they are fond of moisture; 
it is, therefore, obvious that drainage will cause them to languish 
and to die, to be soon replaced by species of better quality. It is 
only by thorough ditching, or rather by underdrainage — the effects 
of which are still more efficient — that one will succeed in obtaining 
so fortunate a transformation." 

We neglected to state in the proper place that all lands 
whose indigenous growth of timber was beech, maple, ash, 
elm, or any other kinds of timber or shrubs requiring wet 
soil, is seldom tillable, and never profitably so, until it is 
underdrained. 



182 LAND DRAINAGE. 

Some years since, Congress proposed to donate to each 
state the amount of swamp lands wliich they respectively 
contained. In Ohio every county was authorized to com- 
mission a surveyor, or other competent person, to ascer- 
tain the number of acres of swamp land in each county, 
a.nd report to the auditor of state. Not more than five 
or six counties availed themselves of this opportunity to 
bring the remnants of public lands into market, and the 
total number of acres reported amounted to 28,000 only. 
Governor S. P. Chase expressed the opinion that Ohio 
was entitled to the entire amount of public lands within 
her territory as swamp lands — at that time about 250,000 
acres. But even this amount is less than the actual 
amount of swamp lands in the state. 

It is almost unnecessary to state that open ditches are 
not required on underdrained grounds, except as main 
drains, leading to a creek or river ; neither is the furrow 
necessary between lands for the purpose of surface drain- 
age. By discarding the furrows, considerable area for 
the growth of plants is added to the field ; and in this par- 
ticular, by increasing the superficial area, drainage is a 
twofold benefit. 

We observed, while traveling on the cars over the Day- 
ton and Michigan railroad, throughout the " Black Swamp" 
region, through which this road passes, that ditches were 
made in removing the earth in constructing the road, 
which answered an admirable purpose for draining. In 
consequence of these ditches, the timber, being of that 
class which flourishes best in a moist or wet soil, for sev- 
eral rods on each side of the road, was either dead or 
dying — the ditches evidently drained to the extent of sev- 
eral rods in every direction, and the trees, finding them- 
selves deprived of their accustomed supply of moisture, 
could no longer vegetate or exist. Not only were the 



WHAT LANDS NEED DRAINING. 



183 



trees dying, but the succulent plants, which require a wet 
soil, had released their claim, in consequence of man's im- 
provement, and yielded their place to plants requiring less 
moisture. Hence, the cheapest and most effectual method 
of ridding meadows of "sour grasses" (carices) is to un- 
derdrain. 

Annexed is a list of plants whose presence is always 
an unmistakable evidence of the necessity of drainage — 
because they flourish only in very moist or wet soil. At 
the same time we are well aware that every practical 
farmer understands the condition of his soil better perhaps 
than he does botany, but there are others who may wish to 
engage in agricultural operations who understand botany 
better than they do the character or condition of soils. 
In the " WJieat Plant " we devoted a chapter to an exam- 
ination of the characteristics and qualities of soil, as in- 
dicated by the indigenous forest trees which it produced, 
and the following list is a further demonstration of the 
same idea. As soon as the soil is properly underdrained, 
all the plants named in the list Avill disappear, because 
their accustomed supply of moisture will then be with- 
drawn, and they, of course, will perish. 



Botanical Name. 
Ranunculus alismaefolius, 

" sceleratus, 

" Pennsylvanicus, 

Caltha palustris, 
Nasturtium offioinale, 

" palustre, 

Cardamine pratensis, 
Impatiens pallida, 

" fulva, 

Floerkea proserpinacoides, 
Rhus venenata, 
Sanguisorba Canadensis, 
Geum strictum, 
" rivale, 



Common Name. 
Water plantain, Spearwoi't. 
Cursed crowfoot. 
Bristly crowfoot. 
Marsh marigold. 
Water cress. 
Marsh cress. 
Cuckoo flower. 
Pale touch-me-not. 
Spotted touch-me-not. 
False mermaid. 
Poison sumach, Dogwood. 
Canadian burnet. 
Avens. 
Water, or purple avens. 



184 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



Botaulcal Name. 
Rosa Carolina, 
Rhexia Virginica, 
Lythrum alaturn, 
Nesaea vertioillata, 
Epilobium coloratum, 
Ludwigia palustris, 
Penthorum sedoides, 
Saxifraga Pennsylvanica, 
Heracleum lanatum, 
Archemora rigida, 
Cicuta maculata, 

" bulbifera, 
Conium maculatum, 
Cornus sericea, 

" stolonifera, 

" stricta, 
Cephalanthus occidentalis, 
Solidago Ohioensis, 

" RiddcUii, 

" patula, 

" lanceolata, 

Helianthus giganteus, 
Coreopsis trichosperma, 
Bidens eernua, 

" chrysanthemoides, 
Helenium autumnale, 
Cacalia tuberosa, 
Cirsium muticum, 
Lobelia cardinalis, 

" syphilitica, 

" Kalmii, 

Plantago major, 
Lysimachia ciliata, 
" radicana, 

" lanceolata, 

Chelone glabra, 
Mimulus ringens, 
" alatus, 

Veronica anagallis, 
" Americana, 

" scutellata, 

Gerardia purpurea, 
Pedicularis Canadensis, 

" lanceolata, 

Dianthera Americana, 



Common Name. 
Swamp rose. 
Deer grass. 
Loosestrife. 

Willow herb. 
Water purslane. 
Ditch stone crop. 
Swamp saxifrage. 
Cow parsnip. 
Cow bane. 
Water hemlock. 
Hemlock. 
Poison hemlock. 
Silky cornel. 
Red osier dogwood. 
Stiff cornel. 
Button bush. 
Golden rod. 



Sunflower. 
Tick seed sunflower. 
Burr marigold. 
It 

Sneezeweed. 

Tuberous Indian plantain. 

Swamp thistle. 

Cardinal flower. 

Great lobelia. 

Rib grass. 
Loosestrife. 



Snakehead. 
Monkey flower. 

Water speedwell. 
Brooklime. 
Marsh speedwell. 

Lousewort. 

Water willow. 



AVIIAT LANDS NEED DRAINING, 



185 



Botanical Name. 
Lippia lanceolata, 
Physostegia Virginiana, 
Scutellaria lateriflora, 
Myosotis palustris, 
Asclepias incarnata, 
Polygonum amphibium, 

" Pennsylvanicum, 

" hydropiper, 

" acre, 

" hydropiperoides, 

Rumex verticillatus, 

" conglomeratus, 
Quercus aquatica, 
" palustris, 
Symplocarpus fcetidus, 
Acorus calamus, 
Typha latifolia, 
Triglochin palustre, 
Alisma plantago, 
Sagittaria variabilis, 
Platanthera peramoena, 
Spiranthes latifolia, 
Cypripediura spectabile, 
Iris Virginica, 
Sisyrinchium Bermudiana, 
Scilla Fraserii, 
Lilium Canadense, 
Melanthium Virginieum. 
Veratrum viride, 
Juneus effusus, 
" scirpoides. 
" militaris. 
" tenuis. 
Cyperus diandrus, 
" strigosua. 
Eleoeharis obtusa, 
" palustris. 

" tenuis. 

" compressa. 

Scirpus sylvaticus, 
" lineatus. 
" eriophorum, 
Eriophorum polystachyon, 
Almost all Sedges. 
Leersia oryzoides, 

17 



Common Name. 
Fog fruit. 
False dragon head. 
Skullcap. 
Forget-me-not. 

Knotweed. 



Swamp dock. 

Green dock. 

Swamp oak. 

Water oak. 

Skunk cabbage. 

Sweet flag. Calamus. 

Cat-tail flag. 

Arrow grass. 

Water plantain. 

Arrow-head. 

Great purple orchis. 

Ladies' tresses. 

Ladies' slipper. 

Blue flag. 

Blue-eyed grass. 

Squill, White hyacinth. 

Wild yellow lily. 

False hellebore. 
Bog rush. 



Galingale. 
Spike rush. 

Club rush. 

Wool grass. 
Cotton grass. 

White grass. 



186 



LAND ORAINAGE. 



Dotanical Name. 
Leersia Virginica. 
Alopecurus aristulatus, 
Cinna arundinacea, 
Calamagrostis Canadensis, 
Spartina cynosuroides, 
Glyceria elongata, 

" nervata. 

" fluitans. 

Phragmites communis, 
Holcus lanatus, 
Hierochloa borealis, 
Phalaris arundinacea, 
Milium effusum. 
Sorghum nutans, 



Common Name. 

Wild water-foxtail. 
Wood-reed grass. 
Blue-joint grass. 
Freshwater cord grass. 
Manna grass. 



Reed. 

Meadow soft grass. 

Vanilla. 

Reed canary grass. 

Millet grass. 

Indian grass. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



ON THE ABSORBING QUALITIES OP^ SOIL AND ANALY- 
SIS OP DRAIN WATER. 

It has been urged in some very intelligent circles that 
drainage would, in course of time, impoverish the soil 
drained, by the drain water carrying off nutritive sub- 
stances held in solution. At first view this hypothesis, 
startling as it was, appeared rational, to say the least. 
Way, Liebig, and other eminent and celebrated chemists, 
determined to ascertain what proportion, as well as what 
kinds of nutritive elements were borne away by drainage 
water, when, to their astonishment, they found that the 
soils at once fixed, and held all the elements necessary for 
the growth and maturity of the plant, and that the amount 
escaping by the drains was in an infinitesimal degree only. 

Believing that the views and experiments of these 
chemists on this subject are eminently proper in this place, 
we here give them in detail : 

In 1850, J. Thomas Way published in the Journal of 
the Royal Agricultural Society of England, ^ an essay " On 
the Power of Soils to Absorb Manure," detailing a series 
of most remarkable experiments, which will prove of great 
importance in modifying the theory, and in confirming or 
disproving the practice of many agricultural operations. 
These experiments prove that certain manuring ingre- 
dients, when brought (in soluble condition) in contact with 
soil, lose their soluble form, and combine in a peculiar 
manner with the soil. 

1 Vol XI, page 313. 

(187) 



188 LAND DRAINAGE. 

Way's experiments were induced by observations made 
by H. S. Thompson and Huxtable, who had found that 
liquid manure, when brought in contact with loamy soil, 
loses its color and odor ; and, according to the statement 
of H. S. Thompson, soils have the faculty of separating 
ammonia from its combinations by withdrawing it from 
water. 

Way proved that the soil affects caustic, carbonate, sul- 
phate, nitrate, and chlorate of ammonia in this manner ; 
the ammonia is arrested, Avhile the acids remain in the 
solution. He extended his experiments to the salts of pot- 
ash, natron, lime and magnesia. He found, moreover, 
that if a solution of phosphate of natron or of guano, in 
diluted sulphuric acid (containing phosphoric acid and 
phosphate of lime), is filtered through soil, the phospho- 
ric acid likewise disappears from the solution, and is ar- 
rested by the soil. He finally determined the quantities 
of ammonia and potash, absorbed and retained in this 
manner, by given weights of various soils. 

He likewise showed that when putrid urine, water from 
the London sewers, and flax water, are filtered through 
white clay, and a soil rich in clay (on Pusey's estate), the 
putrid urine loses its odor and all ammonia; and that the 
rest lose all their potash and phosphoric acid. 

One of the important conclusions for practical agri- 
culture deduced by Way from these experiments, was 
that the soluble ingredients of manure — in whatever form 
and dilution they are conveyed to the soil — are retained 
by the soil for the use of the plants. An English acre of 
soil (of the quality he used for his experiments) ten inches 
in depth, weight about 1,000 tuns, would absorb three tuns 
of ammonia. From this he infers : When the combina- 
tion has once taken place, there appears to be no power 
in water to distribute this manure in the soil. It follows 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOIL. 189 

that if in the application of manure we are not careful 
to make an equal distribution, we compel the roots of the 
plants to seek their food at a distance. 

The experiments of Way were mostly made in clay 
soil — white clay and pipe clay ; and the comparison of 
their absorbing qualities with those of sand, induced him 
to ascribe the absorbing power of soil to the clay (silicate 
of alumina). He afterward endeavored to confirm this 
view, by the discovery of the efi'ects of silicate of clay and 
lime, artificially produced. This latter view, according 
to which the absorbing qualities of soil were to be as- 
cribed to a cause purely chemical, can not claim general 
assent. The pure hydrate of clay soil possesses the power 
of absorbing potash and ammonia in a higher degree than 
the soils. But the facts discovered by him are entirely 
independent of his explanation of them. And if it can 
be proved, that the absorbing power of the soil belongs 
to the ground, or arable soil in general — whatever be its 
composition — these facts will establish a new view on the 
nutrition of plants, and on the manner in which they re- 
ceive their non-gaseous substances from the soil. 

Mr. Way's observations and conclusions refer to cer- 
tain soluble salts and ingredients of manure only. But 
as the manure applied to the fields in practical agriculture, 
does not cause the fertility of soil, but merely contributes 
to its preservation, it is obvious that the nutrition of 
plants, existing in the soil and identical with the ingredients 
of manure, must operate in a manner similar to the lat- 
ter. And if the soluble manurial elements applied to the 
field are separated from the solution, as soon as they 
come in contact with the soil, and form an insoluble com- 
bination with the soil, we must infer that the nutritious sub- 
stances identical with those elements and existing in the 
soil, can likewise not be conveyed to the plants in a solu- 



190 LAND DRAINAGE. 

tion, but that the roots of phants appropriate these sub 
stances in a manner as yet not ascertained. 

The roots of plants receive — according to the views of 
vegetable physiologists and chemists — the elements for 
their nutrition from a solution. Rain water, of itself, or 
aided by carbonic acid, dissolves silicic acid, potash, lime, 
magnesia, phosphate of lime, phosphate of magnesia, and 
oxyd of iron. This solution spreads in the ground, and is 
absorbed by the roots of the plants. The plant acts like a 
sponge, one half of which is in the air and the other in 
the soil. The water contained in it evaporates through 
the agency of leaves, while the roots re-absorb the water 
thus expelled. The quantity of mineral elements con- 
veyed to the roots depends upon the quantity of fluid ab- 
sorbed and evaporated, and the substances contained in 
solution in it. 

This view evidently must be abandoned, if it can be 
proved that rain water of itself, or combined with carbonic 
acid, does not dissolve the mineral elements serving for 
the nutrition of plants in so perceptible a quantity, that 
a certain proportion of vegetation can be ascribed to the 
quantity conveyed in such a solution. Their absorption 
must, in this case, be ascribed to an active cause co-ope- 
rating in the roots of the plants, imparting to the water 
surrounding the root the power of dissolving certain 
mineral elements, which by itself it does not dissolve. 
We must furthermore infer, that the quantity of absorbed 
mineral elements must be in proportion to the root-sur- 
face of the plants, and the aggregate of efficient mineral 
elements contained in those parts of the earth which are 
in contact with the root-surface. 

In order to obtain more definite results regarding these 
questions, experiments have been made^ to determine the 
relations of salts of potash, silicate of potash, and solu- 

' By Prof. Leibig. 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OP SOIL. 191 

tions of earthy phosphates, to a large number of earths 
of various regions and different composition, among which 
there were clayey soils from Hungary, six limy soils from 
Havana, limy loam soil from Weihenstephan and Bogenhau- 
sen, near Munich, three varieties of lime soil from the neigh- 
berhood of Munich of Schleissheim. Particular care had 
been taken to select such soils as were influenced by salts 
of ammonia, in exactly the same manner as those which 
Way used in his experiments. 

A syphon having the capacity of 300 cubic centimeters 
of water, was filled with this earth, and a double volume 
of the solution of salts of potash was filtered through. 
The contents of the solution in the salts of potash were 
knoAvn, those of the filtrate were quantitatively deter- 
mined. 

Experiments with Sulphate of Potash. — The solution 
contained in each cubic centimetre: 1 mgrm. of salt. 
260 centimetres of the liquid were filtered through loam 
soil from Bogenhausen, evaporated to dryness, and treated 
with choride of platinum, they yielded : 0*0325 of chlo- 
ride of platinum and potassium, which corresponds to 6*2 
mgrms. of potash; 518 mgrms. of potash had conse- 
quently been absorbed from 1000 CC. [cubic centimeters] 
of the solution, or 541 mgrms. of potash. 

Soil from Hungary (clay soil) treated with the same 
solution, yielded a filtrate, 420 of which contained 4-6 
mgrms. of potash ; 535'4 mgrms. of potash had conse- 
quently been absorbed from 1000 CC. of the solution. 

Garden mold (rich in lime) yielded a filtrate, 1000 CC. 
of which retained but 16 mgrms. of solved potash. 

It scarcely needs to be mentioned that when filtrates 
still containing perceptible quantities of potash were again 
brought in contact with earth, they lost it all. 

The same quantity of earth absorbed potash from a di- 



192 LAND DRAINAGE. 

luted solution of nitrate and choride of potash to such an 
extent that the quantity remaining in the liquid after fil- 
tration could not be quantitatively determined. 

The experiments with chloride of potash proved also 
that the soil's power of absorbing was limited to potash, 
excluding the chloride. 

Soils are not indifferent to salts of natron ; but their 
power of absorbing natron from its combinations in solu- 
tion is much less when compared Avith the power Avith 
which they retain potash. 

300 CC. of Bogenhausen lime soil were treated in the 
manner described, with a solution of nitrate of natron 
(2000 mgrms. in one litre of water), and the 220 CC. of 
the filtrate, yielded 204 mgrms. of nitrate of natron ; the 
earth had consequently retained but 54 per cent, of the na- 
tron in solution. The same quantity of the same earth was 
treated with an equally strong solution of nitrate of pot- 
ash (2 grms. per litre) and left no definable quantity of 
potash in 220 CC. of the filtrate. 

A solution of sulphate of natron (2 grms. per litre) fil- 
tered through the same soil retained, in 250 CC. of filtrate, 
237 mgrms. of sulphate of natron. 

The effect of common salt upon soil is like that of chlo- 
ride of potash; the entire amount of chloride in the liquid 
is found again in the filtrate, a certain quantity of the base 
of natron is retained, and we find in its stead in the fil- 
trate a corresponding quantity of lime and magnesia. 

Loamy soil, yielding only a trace of lime to pure water, 
was brought in contact with a solution of common salt, 
containing three grms. of salt in one litre ; its filtrate 
showed a very considerable amount of lime and a total 
absence of sulphuric acid. 

Specimens of soil were finally treated with a mixture 
of liquid manure and water, containing, beside, carbonate 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOIL. 



193 



of ammonia, salts of potash and natron. The amount 
of the last two had previously been fixed by the analysis 
of liquid manure : it contained in 125 CC. 86'7 milli- 
grams of potash and 16-8 mgrms. of natron. The liquid 
manure was filtered through 300 CC. of earth, and 125 
CC. were employed for a new analysis. The potash was, 
in this filtrate, diminished to 5*6 mgrms; of the 16*8 mgrms. 
of natron, 5 only had been absorbed. The carbonate of am- 
monia of the liquid manure had been completely arrested 
by the earth, so that it could not be traced in the filtrate. 

These, and a long series of similar experiments with 
most various soils, prove that the relation of soil to salts 
of potash (discovered by Way) is altogether a general 
quality of arable soil. The inferences with regard to the 
soluble ingredients of maniwe are thus completely con- 
firmed. The facts ascertained by Way establish, there- 
fore, the law, that the plants do not absorb the manurial 
substances applied to fields in a soluble state directly, and 
in the form in which they are contained in manure, but 
that they previously combine with certain ingredients of 
the soil, whereby they lose their solubility in the water. 

Meadow and wild plants receive manure. Although it 
seems probable that they, too, do not receive their incom- 
bustible substances from a solution of the same, but that 
their roots must, like those of the cultivated plants, absorb 
their nutritious elements directly from the soil. The ex- 
periments of Way, with respect to the manner of nutrition 
of plants, do not warrant a general application of his in- 
ferences. As to water plants floating on the water's sur- 
face, the roots of which do not reach the ground, their 
mineral ingredients must necessarily have been conveyed 
in a solution. 

J. V. Liebig has made some experiments respecting 
these questions, and from them he is led to believe that 
18 



194 LAND DRAINAGE. 

the manner in whicli the land and water plants receive 
their nutritive elements may be demonstrated. 

The uncultivated plants receive the alkalies of their 
ashes from the silicates, and the phosphoric acid from phos- 
phate of lime, or phosphate of magnesia. 

The relation of silicates of alkalies and of a solution 
of the above-named phosphates of alkalies in carburetted 
water to the different soils was examined, and it was found 
that silicate of potash operates precisely like all salts of 
potash. The determination of the quantity of potash ab- 
sorbed by the soils is, by the use of this salt, far easier 
and less laborious than with the other salts of potash, since 
it has a strong alkaline reaction, and the decrease of pot- 
ash in its solution can safely be observed with a good re- 
agent (paper). 

If a diluted solution of silicate of potash be brought 
in contact with soil, it instantly loses its alkaline reaction. 
The quantity of alkali absorbed by a given weight or vol- 
ume of earth may thus be readily ascertained. The soils 
for these experiments were measured in uniform powder 
by means of a vessel divided into cubic centrimetres and 
brought into a glass bottle; portions of the solution of 
silicate of alkali were then added, and they were shaken 
till the fluid manifested a feeble alkaline reaction. 

The solution of the silicate contained, according to a 
previous analysis, in 1000 CC. 1-166 grains of potash 
free from water, and 2'78 of silicic acid. 

SOILS FROM THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF MUNICH. 

I. 400 CC. of garden mold (containing 31*8 per cent, of 

arbonate of lime) neutralized the alkaline reaction of 810 

CC. of the above-named solution of silicate of potash ; 

1000 CC. of earth absorbed consequently 2-344 grms. of 

potash. 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOIL. 195 

II. 1000 CC. of the same earth mixed with another 
solution of silicate of potash, containing 1-183 of potash 
in 1000 CO., absorbed the potash of 1940 CC. of this 
solution=2-294 grms. of potash. 

III. 1000 CC. of soil (loam) absorbed the potash from 
2200 CC. of the same solution=2"601 grms. of potash. 

IV. 1000 CC. of soil (loam) absorbed the potash from 
2-000 CC. of the same solution=2-366 grms.. of potash. 

V. 1000 CC. of loam (3-77 per c. of lime) absorbed the 
potash from 1906 CC. of solution=2-206 grms. of potash. 

CLAY SOIL FROM HUNGARY. 

This soil is of a brownish gray color, and possesses a 
quality rarely noticed in other soils in Germany. This 
earth, with water, forms a plastic mass ; when rubbed be- 
tween the fingers it is imperceptibly fine; when decanted 
ofi", no sand remains, at least only a few grains, which are 
partly dissolved, effervescing with acids. The kneaded 
mass does not, when dried, fall to pieces, and yields, when 
burnt, a pale ochry-yellow, inwardly black, porous mass, 
melting in stronger fire. There were three specimens of 
earth : 

I. Cucuritza Batrin. II. Alba dolina ; and III. Funt- 
mular. 1000 CC. of these earths weighed, on an aver- 
age, 1232 grammes. They stood in the following rela- 
tions to a solution of silicate of potash, 1*183 mgrms. of 
potash in 1 litre : 

1000 CC. of Hungarian soil, I., absorbed the potash 
of 2855 CC. of solution=3-377 grms. of potash. 

1000 CC. of Hungarian soil, II., absorbed the potash 
of 2785 CC. of solution=3-294 grms. of potash. 

1000 CC. of Hungarian soil, III., absorbed the potash 
of 2685 CC. of solution=3-177 grms. of potash. 



196 LAND DRAINAGE. 

HAVANA SOILS. 

No. I, of gray color; 1000 CC. of earth absorbed the 
potash from 1526 CC. of solution:=l'805 grms. of potash. 

No. II, of yellow color; 1000 CC. of earth absorbed 
the potash from 1058 CC. of solution=l-251 grms. of 
potash. 

No, III, of red color; 1000 CC. of earth absorbed 
the potash from 1916 CC. of solution^2'266 grms. of 
potash. 

No. IV, of red color; 1000 CC. of earth absorbed 
the potash from 1769 CC. of solution=2-092 grms. of 
potash. 

No. V, of gray color; 1000 CC. of earth absorbed 
the potash from 1210 CC. of solution=l-431 grms. of 
potash. 

No. VI, of gray color; 1000 CC. of earth absorbed 
the potash from 1150 CC. of solution=l-o60 grms. of 
potash. 

The nature and quality of these earths prove that their 
power of absorbing potash does not belong to a certain 
composition, and that this quality is chemical, and depends 
upon a certain mechanical quality or porosity. 

The chemical relations are obvious in the relation of 
the salts of potash to soils, and of their conversion into 
combinations of lime and magnesia. The soils do not ab- 
sorb the salts, but potash or the base ; and the absorption 
of alkali would not be likely to occur if the acid did not 
come in contact with a body representing potash and neu- 
tralizing the acid. 

If the affinity of soil for potash were chemical, the 
former Afould depend upon a chemical combination exist- 
ing in the soil, and the quantity of alkali absorbed would 
be in proportion to the quantity of this combination. 

All the earths examined were mixtures of clay and 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOILS. 197 

lime, and contained a certain amount of sand in mechan- 
ical admixture. 

If the absorbing quality depended upon the silicate of 
clay, it would increase with the quantity of lime, or de- 
crease with that of clay. But there is, in this respect, 
hardly any difference in the earths examined, with excep- 
tion of the Hungarian, as will be seen in the following 
synopsis : 

1000 cubic centrimetres of soil from 

Bogenhausen, Garden mold, Havana, No. III. 

Contain - - 6-6 per cent. 32'2 per cent. 57 per cent, of carbon, of lime. 

Absorbed - 2366 mgrms. 2344 mgrms. 2266 mgrms. of potash. 

These experiments exhibit no special relation of the 
absorbing power to the clayey contents of these earths. 
The Bogenhausen loam is so rich in clay that it is used 
for manufacturing tiles. The Havana earth, No. HI, is a 
dry, poor lime soil, of a red color, due to its oxyd of iron. 
Both diifer exceedingly in their composition, and have, 
notwithstanding, the same power of absorbing potash. 

As to carbonate of lime, we know that a piece of chalk 
or a porous limestone, placed in a diluted solution of pot- 
ash ^^ water-glass,^' becomes a stony mass, almost bearing 
a polish, and but slightly porous; that carbonate of 
lime — as Fuchs discovered — is not decomposed, but com- 
bines with a certain quantity of the silicate of potash con- 
tained in the fluid. If we pulverize chalk very finely, 
wash it, and bring it in contact with silicate of potash, this 
latter substance is very sparingly absorbed by the fluid. 
10 CC. of the solution of silicate of potash, containing 
11'8 mgrms. of alkali, were mixed with chalk, and its alka- 
line reaction was not perceptible until 115 CC. of pow- 
dered chalk had been added; the reaction was caused by 
the addition of water and the subsequent dilution of the 
alkaline solution, rather than by the absorption of alkali. 



198 LAND DRAINAGE. 

This filtered liquid was concentrated by evaporation, and 
reassumed the alkaline reaction that had become imper- 
ceptible, in consequence of dilution. 

Pure hydrate of clay soil was found to separate the 
greatest amount of silicate of potash from its solutions, 
so that the latter lose their alkaline reaction. 

In one experiment, a quantity of hydrate of clay soil, 
corresponding=2*696 grms. of burnt clay soil, absorbed 
silicate of potash from 150 CC. of a solution, containing 
in 1000 CC. 1-185 grms. of potash and 3-000 grms. of 
silicic acid. If we suppose that one kilogramme of clay 
soil occupies, as a dry hydrate, the space of one cubic de- 
cimetre, so that it is as heavy as one litre of soil, one litre 
of this hydrate of clay soil would have absorbed the pot- 
ash and silicic acid from 4600 CC. of this solution, i. e., 
26 grms. of potash. This is about seven times as much 
as the Hungarian earth No. I may absorb from the same 
solution. We must, therefore, presume that hydrate of 
clay, in admixture with silicates of clay, partakes also of 
the soil's power of absorbing silicate of alkali. We can 
readily perceive that this quality is very complicated. 

The soil is not influenced by silicic acid combined in so- 
lution with alkali in the same manner as by an alkali alone. 

A solution of the silicate of potash, filtered through 
forest soil, yielded a brown-colored filtrate of a feeble acid 
reaction, in which the potash and silicic acid were fixed. 

Garden mold, loam soil and Hungarian earth were 
treated in the same manner^ and 250' to 500 CC. of the 
filtrate (which did not react) were employed to determine 
the silicic acid and potash contained in it. The following 
are the results obtained: 

1000 CC. of a solution of potash, ^^water-glass," filtered 
through forest soil, retained in solution 215 mgrms. of 
potash and 2765 mgrms. of silicic acid. 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOILS. 199 

1000 CC. of the same solution, filtered through garden 
mold, retained in solution 111 mgrms. of potash and 1699 
mgrms. of silicic acid. 

1000 CC. of the same solution, filtered through loam 
soil (Bogenhausen), retained in solution 18 mgrms. of pot- 
ash and 773 mgrms. of silicic acid. 

1000 CC. of the same solution, filtered through garden 
mold, retained in solution 18 mgrms. of potash and 353 
mgrms. of silicic acid. 

1000 CC. of the same solution, filtered through Hun- 
garian soil II, retained in solution 14 mgrms. of potash 
and 136 mgrms. of silicic acid. 

The applied ("water-glass") solution contained per 
litre, 1166 mgrms. of potash and 2780 mgrms. of silicic 
acid ; there remained, after filtering through forest earth, 
215 mgrms. of potash and 2965 mgrms. of silipic acid; 
the forest earth had consequently absorbed 957 mgrms. 
of potash and 15 mgrms. of silicic acid. 

The garden mold I absorbed in a similar manner from 
the fluid, 1055 mgrms. of potash and 1081 mgrms. of 
silicic acid. 

Bogenhausen loam soil absorbed in a similar manner 
from the fluid, 1148 mgrms. of potash and 2007 mgrms. 
of silicic acid. 

Garden soil II absorbed in a similar manner from the 
fluid (amount potash not defined), 2425 mgrms. of silicic 
acid. 

Hungarian soil H absorbed in a similar manner from 
the fluid, 1142 mgrms. of potash and 2611 mgrms. of 
silicic acid. 

The forest earth and Hungarian soil represent, in these 
experiments, the utmost limits of aSinity for absorbing 
silicic acid. The former had absorbed, from the solution 
of the silicate of potash, three fourths of the potash and 



200 LAND DRAINAGE. 

almost no silicic acid; while the latter had pretty 
much absorbed all the potash and silicic acid in so- 
lution. 

The liquids filtered through forest, garden and loam 
soil were so rich in silicic acid that they gelatinized, when 
evaporated, like the solution of a silicate in an acid. The 
forest soil, having absorbed the smallest quantity of silicic 
acid, yielded, in the beginning, a light brown-colored fil- 
trate of feeble acid reaction. The filtrates of garden soil 
I and of the loam soil were likewise dark colored, and the 
slight power of absorbing silicic acid may be explained as 
having its cause in the organic matter or the decaying 
vegetable substances, as they contained these earths in 
larger quantities than the others, which had absorbed more 
silicic acid from the same solution. 

The following experiments will, perhaps, confirm this 
conclusion. The earths examined were dried at a high 
temperature, and exposed to a red heat in the air. The 
forest soil lost in combustible substances 30*9 per cent.; 
the garden soil 1, 18 per cent.; the loam soil, 8*7; the Hun- 
garian soil, 9-84; the Havana soil HI contained 5*5 per cent, 
only, the least quantity of organic substances. 

Equally large volumes of the last two earths were mixed 
with the same solution ("water-glass") until the fluids 
showed a very feeble but perfectly uniform alkaline reac- 
tion ; they were then filtered, and the silicic acid of the 
fluid was determined. In these experiments, the earths 
came in contact with a very insignificant excess of the 
solution of silicic potash. 

1000 CC. of the filtrate of the Hungarian soil retained 
in solution 1010 mgrms. of silicic acid ; the filtrate of the 
Havana soil contained in the same volume 580 mgrms. of 
silicic acid. The organic substances existing in the soil — 
humus — possess the character of an acid, or the quality 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOILS. 201 

of combining with alkaline bases, in a higher degree than 
the silicic acid, and seem to a certain extent to neutralize 
this power of entering into insoluble combinations with 
the silicates of lime and clay soil. The chemical nature 
of the soil has, however, a great influence in this partic- 
ular. 

Thus, the two garden soils stood in varying relations 
to the silicic acid of the silicate of potash, although they 
contained very near the same amount of combustible sub- 
stances. A certain quantity of earth absorbs 1081 mgrms. 
of a solution of silicate of potash, while another equally 
large quantity of soil had absorbed 2425 mgrms. of silicic 
acid ; the latter soil contained a considerable amount of 
carbonate of lime, while the former contained a large por- 
tion of silicious sand. The filtrates of both were perfectly 
neutral, but differed widely in their coloring. The perco- 
lated liquid (of the solution of silicate of potash) of the 
garden soil, rich in lime, was very slightly brown ; that of 
the soil rich in sand and destitute of lime was of a deep 
brown color. 

The forest soil, which absorbed scarcely any silicic acid, 
yielded, when calcined, a residuum which did not effervesce 
with acids, and consisted for the greater part of silicious 
sand. This soil was mixed with about 10 per cent, of washed 
chalk, dried, and afterward a solution of silicate of potash 
was filtered through it. The filtrate was neutral and 
much less colored than it was before (without the chalk). 
95 CC. of filtrate yielded 199 mgrms. of silicic acid; 100 
CC. 21 mgrms. of potash; 1000 CC. gave, therefore, 2090 
mgrms. of silicic acid and 210 mgrms. of potash. The 
solution (of "water-glass") contained, before its contact 
with the soil, per litre : 1277 mgrms. of potash and 3230 
mgrms. of silicic acid. The same earth which previously 
absorbed 15 mgrms. only of silicic acid, and 951 mgrms. 



202 LAND DRAINAGE, 

of potash — with a large amount of organic substances and 
a lack of alkaline bases — from one litre of solution (of 
"water-glass"), containing 1167 mgrms. of potash and 2765 
mgrms. of silicic acid — the same earth now absorbed, from 
the same volume of solution, 1140 mgrms. of silicic acid 
and 1060 mgrms. of potash. Washed chalk absorbs by 
itself, under these circumstances, no definable quantity of 
alkali and silicic acid. 

The same forest soil was finally incorporated with lime 
water into a paste, to which a sufficient quantity of lime 
water was added from time to time, until it exhibited a 
feeble alkaline reaction ; the latter was neutralized by a 
supply of earth. This earth had thus lost its acid reac- 
tion without the presence of an excess of lime ; it was 
subsequently dried, and combined with a solution of sili- 
cate of potash. The filtrate exhibited a feeble alkaline 
reaction of lime ; but the silicic acid had decreased from 
3230 mgrms. per litre to 61 mgrms., and the potash from 
1277 to 290 mgrms., which had remained in the solution. 

Soils, by burning, undergo a remarkable modification in 
their power of absorbing silicic acid. Loam soil (Bogen- 
hausen) was burnt in the air (in order to destroy the or- 
ganic substance), and combined with the solution of pot- 
ash (water-glass). 

No diminution of alkaline reaction had taken place in 
the filtrate ; but the silicic acid had been completely sep- 
arated from the solution. 20 CC. of the filtrate required 
24 CC. of a solution of oxalic acid to neutralize it. There 
existed more alkali in the filtrate than in the liquid em- 
ployed, and a close investigation proved that a certain 
quantity of caustic lime had been dissolved. 

It results from these experiments that vegetable remains 
in the soil exert an influence on the distribution of the 
hydrate of silica to the roots. This may, perhaps, explain 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOILS. • 203 

the influence of a certain amount of humus in the soil — 
or of the organic remains of plants with widely-spread 
roots, as clover — upon the growth of the subsequent 
plants ; as well as the occurrence of plants abounding in 
silicic acid in stagnant waters and swamps, upon the soil 
of which great quantities of decaying vegetable matter 
are accumulating. 

These facts warrant the conclusion that potash is afford- 
ed to the plants in one relation only, or that they separate 
it from one combination only. 

Chloride of potassium and sulphate or nitrate of potash 
do not operate in the soil in the form in which they are 
applied ; but the base separated from the acid, the latter 
forming, with lime and magnesia, salts of another chemi- 
cal nature. 

The plant does not absorb those substances in conse- 
quence of a decomposing process in its organism after 
their reception. The soil accomplishes this decomposition 
previous to absorption, inasmuch as it separates the potash 
from the acid with which it was combined, and renders it 
insoluble in water. 

Any soil possesses a certain power of absorbing potash; 
this power can be represented by a figure ; and it is not 
unlikely that the quality of a soil may be determined by 
this illustration. 

Ammonia, either pure or in the form of salts, acts pre- 
cisely like potash. 

A manufacturer on the Rhine, being desirous of ex- 
tracting oxide of copper from bituminous marl-slate, in 
which it existed in the form of malachite and lapis lazuli, 
hit upon the idea of using ammonia for this purpose, as 
it had, in experiments on a smaller scale, furnished satis- 
factory results. He constructed, at considerable expense, 
an extracting apparatus on a large scale, consisting of two 



204 LAND DRAINAGE. 

basins, connected with each other by a very wide pipe. 
One of them was used for the ammoniacal liquid ; the pipe 
was filled with bituminous marl-slate ; the second basin 
served as condenser. Ammonia and water vapor were, 
according to this arrangement, to be driven with the cop- 
per ore through the pipe, to condense there and to dissolve 
the oxide of copper; the solution was to flow into the 
second basin. The pipe was afterward to be filled again 
with copper ore, and the ammonia of the satiated solution 
was to be driven out by boiling, and to serve again to ex- 
tract another portion of the copper ore. As the apparatus 
was hermetically closed, it was hoped that the same am- 
monia could be employed Avithout loss to extract large 
quantities of copper ore. One of the two basins served 
alternately as condenser. The first experiment was sat- 
isfactory, inasmuch as a solution of oxide of copper was 
collected in one of the basins ; but when the ammonia was 
driven through another portion of bituminous marl-slate, 
it disappeared in an unaccountable manner to the manu- 
facturer, so that the proceeding was ultimately abandoned. 
The disappearance of ammonia in these operations had 
been undoubtedly caused by being absorbed by the bitu- 
minous marl-slate. This fact may be regarded as a proof 
of the powerful afiinity between them, which does not 
appear to be neutralized even by the influence of a high 
temperature. 

The power of certain soils to absorb ammonia may be 
sufficient, perhaps, to separate — in manufacturing artificial 
manure — ammonia from very diluted ammoniacal liquids, 
putrid urine and other liquids, and to combine them in- 
stead of an acid. 

Urine substances, which in putrid state are converted 
into carbonate ammonia, are not separated from their so- 
lutions by the soil. A solution of urine (2000 mgrms. per 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOILS. 205 

litre), before or after filtration through soil, required an 
equally large portion of nitrous oxide of mercury to pre- 
cipitate it, so that not the smallest portion of it seemed to 
have been absorbed by the soil. 

The relation of a solution of phosphate of lime, phos- 
phate of magnesia, or phosphate of ammoniated magnesia 
to soil, is similar to that of a solution of salts of potash or 
ammonia. This seems to prove that the effect produced 
by soil upon these solutions, is based partially upon the 
formation of chemical combinations. 

While, in the salts of potash and ammonia only the 
alkali is extracted and retained by the soil, this affinity 
extends to the phosphates, and more especially to phos- 
phoric acid. 

Liebig mixed lime water with diluted phosphoric acid, 
so that neither alkaline nor acid reaction could be per- 
ceived. The precipitate thus produced was dissolved in 
water holding carbonic acid in excess. Similar solutions 
were subsequently made (by him) of phosphate of ammo- 
niated magnesia in carburetted water. 

Measured quantities of these solutions were then brought 
into contact with different soils until specimens of the fil- 
tered liquids gave manifest indications of the presence of 
phosphoric acid by a distinct reaction of molybdate. Thus, 
it was approximatively ascertained that from the solution 
of phosphate of lime which contained 610 mgrms. of phos- 
phate of lime per litre : 

1000 CC. of loam soil absorbed 1098 mgrms. of phosphate of lime. 
" " garden soil " 976 " 

" '= 8oilofWeihenstephan976 " " " 

" " " Schleissheim 976 " " " 

These experiments show that equal volumes of these 

may differ very little in their affinity for phosphoric acid. 
The liquids filtered through these soils were almost as 



206 LAND DllAINAGE. 

limy as before, and appeared to have lost the phosphoric 
acid only ; but these soils contained a considerable quan- 
tity of carbonate of lime. While, therefore, the phos- 
phate of lime contained in the soil was separated from its 
solution in carburetted water, the latter retained its power 
of dissolving the carbonate of lime. An acetate was 
formed from the carbonate of lime, which filtered through 
without being decomposed. 

An addition of chalk decanted oflF will not cause phos- 
phate of lime to be separated from a solution of phosphate 
of lime in carburetted water; the fluid retains its reaction 
on phosphoric acid. 

The relation of soils to phosphate of ammonia and phos- 
phate of magnesia is similar to that of phosphate of lime. 
They exhibited in this salt, too, very slight difference in 
their power of absorption. 

Equal volumes of Bogenhausen loam soil, garden soil, 
and soils from Weihenstephan and Schleissheim, absorbed 
the same quantity of phosphate of magnesia-ammonia — 
that is, they separated this salt from an equal volume of 
its solution in carburetted water. 1000 CC. of these soils 
required, in order to determine the presence of phosphoric 
acid in the filtrate, 1800 CC. of a solution containing 1425 
mgrms. of salt of magnesia per litre. The phosphoric 
acid, magnesia and ammonia disappeared simultaneously 
from the solution, and the filtrate received an abundant 
quantity of lime in their place. The filtrate of the Schleiss- 
heim soil contained 884 mgrms. of lime in 1800 CO.; the 
filtrate of the garden soil, 524 mgrms. ; that of the soil 
from Weihenstephan, 402 mgrms.; that of the loam soil 
from Bogenhausen, 456 mgrms. of lime. These quantities 
of lime are evidently in no relation to each other or to the 
salt previously dissolved. 

The salt of magnesia is not precipitated from a solution 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOILS. 207 

of phosphate of magnesia and ammonia in carburetted 
water, when brought in contact with decanted chalk ; lime 
does not supplant magnesia. From the relation of soil to 
lime, ammonia and phosphoric acid, we may infer that the 
majority of our cultivated plants do not receive their most 
important mineral substances from a solution. For if the 
potash and ammonia are so completely separated from the 
acids with which they are combined, and from water, that, 
after the percolation of their solutions through strata that 
are not deeper than tillable soil, chemical analysis can 
hardly discover any traces of these substances ; it can not 
be supposed that rain water in itself, or Avith the aid of a 
small per cent, of carbonic acid, should be able to sepa- 
rate these substances from the soil, and to form a solution 
capable of spreading in the soil without losing the sub- 
stances held in solution. The same remark will apply to 
phosphoric acid and the phosphates generally. Water, 
holding carbonic acid in excess, will dissolve this salt 
wherever it meets in connection with phosphate of lime; 
but this means of solution can only cause the distribution 
of phosphates in the soil; the solution can not leave the 
place where it was formed without its soluble salt being 
separated again from soil not saturated with it. 

These substances exist in the soil in a condition ready 
to be absorbed by means of the roots ; but they are not 
soluble in themselves by rain water, and can not be sepa- 
rated by means of this solution till the soil holds it in 
excess. 

The composition of our common river water, of springs 
and of drain water upon fields, serves to support these 
inferences. 

A number of excellent analyses of river and spring 
water have been made by Graham, Miller and Hofmann, 
from which it appears that 10,000 gallons, or 500 tuns, 



208 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



of Thames water, taken from five different places of the 
Thames, contained : 

Pounds. Thames, Dillen. Kew. Barnes. lledhouse, Batteraea. Lambotb. 
Potash, - 7.3 4.71 3.55 10. 7.3 

The following spring waters contained in 100,000 gal- 
lons = 1,000,000 pounds : 



Pounds 
Potash, 



Whitley. 
2.71 



Cutshmere. Velhvood. Hindhead. Barford. Cosfordhouse. 
2.5 3. 0.7 1.8 6. 



Thomas Way found in drain water, i. e. in rain Avater 
filtrated through soil in a natural manner, the following 
ingredients in specimens of seven different fields : 





Grains in 


1 Galloi 


=70.000 Grains of Water. 




1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


5, 


6. 


7. 


Potash, 


trace. 


trace. 


0.02 


0.05 


trace. 


0.22 


trace. 


Natron, 


1.00 


2.17 


2.26 


0.87 


1.42 


1.40 


3.20 


Lime, - - - 


4.85 


7.19 


6.05 


2.26 


2.52 


5.82 


13.00 


Magnesia, 


0.68 


2.32 


2.48 


0.41 


0.21 


0.93 


2.50 


Osyd of iron and clay 
















soil, 


0.40 


0.05 


0.10 





1.30 


0.35 


0.50 


Silicic acid. 


0.95 


0.45 


0.55 


1.20 


1.80 


0.65 


0.85 


Chlorine, - 


6.70 


1.10 


1.27 


0.81 


1.26 


1.21 


2.62 


Sulphuric acid, 


1.65 


5.15 


4.40 


1.71 


1.29 


3.12 


9.51 


Phosphoric acid, - 


trace. 


0.12 


trace. 


trace. 


0.08 


0.06 


0.12 


Ammonia, 


0.018 


0.018 


0.018 


0.012 


0.018 


0.018 


0.006 



Dr. Krocker obtained quite similar results in his analy- 
sis of drain water at Proskau (Liebig and Kopp's 
Jahresb. f. 1853, 742). See table on following page. 

These drain waters contain all the substances which 
rain water can dissolve in the soil, and their composition 
gives an idea of the quantity which a plant can possibly 
obtain from this solution during its period of vegetation. 

We will suppose that twelve millions of pounds of rain 
water fall upon an acre of ground during a year, and that 
the third part of this water has dissolved or holds in 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOILS. 



209 





Drain Water (in 10,000 Parts.) 




a. 


b. 


c. 


d. 


e. 


f. 


Organic substance, 


0.25 


0.24 


0.16 


0.06 


0.63 


0.56 


Carbonate of lime, - 


0.8-i 


0.84 


1.27 


0.79 


0.71 


0.84 


Sulphate of lime. 


2.08 


2.10 


1.14 


0.17 


0.77 


0.72 


Nitrate of lime, 


0.02 


0.02 


0.01 


0.02 


0.02 


0.02 


Carbonate of magnesia, - 


0.70 


0.69 


0.47 


0.27 


0.27 


0.16 


Carbonate of iron. 


0.04 


0.04 


0.04 


0.02 


0.02 


0.01 


Potash, - - - 


0.02 


0.02 


0.02 


0.02 


0.04 


0.06 


Natron, - - - 


0.11 


0.15 


0.13 


0.10 


0.05 


0.04 


Chloride of the base of natron 














(natrium), - - - 


0.08 


0.08 


0.07 


0.03 


0.01 


0.01 


Siliceous earth, - 


0.07 


0.07 


0.06 


0.05 


0.06 


0.05 


Total of solid substances, - 


4.21 


4.25 


3.37 


1.53 


2.68 


2.47 



excess all the substances like the above-mentioned drain 
waters ; that these four millions of pounds are completely 
absorbed in the months of June, July, August and Sep- 
tember, by the roots of the potato plants cultivated in 
this soil, and are evaporated through their leaves. All 
the potato plants together would, in this case, not receive 
a single pound of this solution from the first four fields 
of an acre each ; they would receive somewhat more than 
one pound from the two other fields (Nos. 5 and 6), and 
two pounds of potash from the seventh (No. 7). 

Now an acre of ground produces an average crop of 
potatoes containing 408 pounds of ashes, in which there 
are 200 pounds of potash. 

Supposing the fields — whose drain water was analyzed 
by Dr. Krocker — to be planted with beets, and that four 
millions of pounds of rain water, holding the mineral 
substances from the soil in excess, had been conveyed to 
the plant during the period of its vegetation ; this rain 
water could have conveyed to the beet plants of the four 
fields of an acre each, only 8 pounds, of another sixteen 
pounds, and of a third twenty-four pounds of potash. 

The average crop of beets on an acre amounts, together 
19 



210 LAND DRAINAGE. 

with the leaves, to 100,000 pounds, containing 1,144 
pounds of ashes, in which there are 495 pounds of pot- 
ash! 

The amount of ammonia in the drain water analyzed 
by Way is extraordinarily small. It can scarcely be 
imagined that one pound of ammonia dissolved in three 
and a half millions of pounds of water should exert any 
perceptible influence upon vegetation. 

Its quantity could not be determined in a gallon (70,- 
000 grains), of Thames water taken from four places to that 
amount, and there are in the water taken from the Thames 
near Redhouse Battersea, 3 parts in 7 million parts of 
water. The Thames would, when used for irrigation, 
undoubtedly produce a considerable increase of the hay 
crop on many meadows ; but, assuredly, not by the sup- 
ply of ammonia, of which this water, as well as river and 
brook water in general, is so destitute. 

The amount of phosphoric acid in the drain, river and 
common spring water is = nought. Krocker did not find 
any in drain water ; Way found only traces of it in the 
water from three drains. 

It appears from the relations of soil that the plant it- 
self must be active in absorbing its nourishment ; its ex- 
istence as an organic being does not entirely depend upon 
exterior causes. 

If the land plants received their nourishment from a 
solution, they could (according to time and proportion) 
absorb only as much as evaporates through their leaves ; 
they could only absorb what the solution contains and 
conveys. It is certain that the water of the soil, and the 
evaporation by means of the leaves co-operate in the pro-' 
cess of assimilation as necessary agents of conveyance ; 
but there exists in the soil a police protecting the plant 
from conveying injurious materials, and selecting only 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOILS. . 211 

what the latter needs. Whatever the soil aifords can be 
conveyed into its organism only by the co-operation of 
an active cause in the root. 

The greatest number of cultivated plants are compelled 
to receive their mineral nutrition directly from the soil, 
so that their subsistence is endangered, and they are 
stunted and die away, if these substances are conveyed to 
them in a solution. 

It is very diiEcult to imagine in what manner the plants 
bring about the solution of mineral ingredients. As a 
matter of course, water is indispensable for its transition. 

There are frequently found in meadows smooth lime 
stones, the surface of which is covered with fine net-like 
furrows ; if the stone is taken fresh from the ground, 
each deepened line or furrow is seen to correspond to 
some fiber, as if it had eaten its way into the stone. 

The difficulty of explanation should not prevent us 
from investigating the facts in all directions, and to ascer- 
tain the full extent of their influence. There are always 
exceptions enough. 

There must, of course, be other laws for the absorption 
of mineral nutrition by those water plants whose roots do 
not reach the ground. They must, like the sea plants, 
receive it from the surrounding medium ; for wherever a 
plant is growing, it must find the conditions of its ex- 
istence. 

The examinations of waterworts (Lemna trisulea), 
gave rise to some interesting observations in this respect. 
This plant grows in stagnant waters, ponds and bogs, and 
floats on the surface of the water, so that its roots are in 
no connection whatever with the ground. 

A number of these plants were collected (by Liebig), 
dried, burnt, and the ashes analyzed. Ten to fifteen 
litres of the swamp water from which they had been 



212 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



taken, and which was slightly green, Avere filtered and 
evaporated to dryness. The ashes and salt residuum of 
the water were subsequently subjected to an analysis. 

The large quantity of mineral ingredients contained in 
this plant was really surprising ; still more so was the 
quantity and quality of the elements of the swamp water, 
which indicated, by analysis, a very unexpected composi- 
tion. We will put their analysis in juxtaposition, in 
order to facilitate comparison. 







Ashes 


of Waterworts. 


Salt residuum. 






100 parts of dried worts 


1 litre contains 0.415 






yielded 


IG.G parts of 
ashes. 


grnis of residuum 
(slightly burnt). 






There arc in 100 jiarts 


There are in 100 parts 






of tilt 


burnt ashes : 


of salt : 


Lime, . - . 






16.82 


35.00 


Magnesia, 


- 




6.08 


12.264 


Common salt. 






5.897 


10.10 


Chloride of potassium, - 


- 




1.45 





Potash, - - _ 






13.16 


3.97 


Natron, - - - 


- 







0.471 


Oxyd of iron, with traces of 


clay 








soil, - - - 


- 




7.36 


0.721 


Phosphoric acid, 






8.730 


2.619 


Sulphuric acid, - 


- 




6.09 


8.271 


Silicic acid, - - . 






12.35 


3.24 



The comparison of the composition of water with the 
ingredients of ashes, shows that all the mineral substances 
of the former are to be found in the plant, with the excep- 
tion of natron, but in a relation very much changed. The 
water contains 45 per cent, of lime and magnesia, the plant 
only 21 per cent.; the water contains 0*72 per cent, of oxide 
of iron, the plant ten times more. The differences between 
phosphoric acid, potash, etc., are not less remarkable. A 
selection had obviously taken place : the plant absorbed 
the mineral substances in the proper proportions for its 
growth, and by no means in the relations offered by the 
fluid. 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOILS. 213 

The great amount of mineral elements in the water is 
very remarkable ; for it more than ten times exceeds that 
in drain water, and from twenty-five to thirty times that 
in spring water. This water represents, therefore, in its 
qualitative analysis, a mineral water nowhere else to be 
found. 

The accession of the amount of potash, phosphoric acid, 
sulphuric acid, silicic acid and iron can be explained with- 
out diflBculty. There are a vast number of decaying gen- 
erations of plants gradually gathering in a swamp, the 
roots of which have taken up from the soil a great quan- 
tity of mineral substances. These remains of plants rot 
upon the bottom of the swamp ground, i. e., they are 
burnt, and their inorganic elements (or their elements of 
ashes) are dissolved under the co-operation of carbonic 
acid, and, perhaps, of organic acids in the water ; they 
remain dissolved when the surrounding mud and earth 
have been saturated with this solution. 

It has been ascertained that this boggy water, when fil- 
tered through soil taken up about a foot from the margin 
of the water basin, does not lose its potash, while the pot- 
ash of any other soil is rapidly separated from the same 
water. 

Mud of ponds (mucJc), stagnant waters and bogs, is often 
highly valued as an excellent means of improving the 
fields and increasing their fertility. This mud operates 
evidently like soil. 

Water percolating through a soil in which remains of 
plants are accumulating and decaying, dissolves, of course, 
many mineral substances otherwise not found in those soils. 

Verdeil and Eisler's investigations as to the quantity 
of potash and phosphoric acid separated from soil by tepid 
water, are unfortunately not conclusive. They extracted 
about 40 pounds of soil by means of tepid distilled water, 



214 LAND DRAINAGE. 

dried the clear yellowish extract, burnt it, and analysed 
the remains. They found, in the majority of cases, not 
more than 4, in others 6 to 8 and 9 per cent, of phosphate 
of lime. Another sediment contained 11, and another 18 
per cent, of phosphate of lime. Chloride of potassium and 
natron amounted together from 3 to 9, in other cases to 
14 and 18 per cent. The potash and natron of the silicates 
together in no case reached 8 per cent. 

This investigation did not determine what per cent, of 
ashes was left by the extract, and how much of these sub- 
stances had consequently been dissolved by the water. 
And this was evidently the principal point of this analysis. 
Had the watery extract of soil been 40 pounds with /o per 
cent, of ingredient of ashes, the mineral substances dis- 
solved from the 40 pounds of earth would have amounted 
to 20 grms., and only 31 mgrms. of potash and 40 mgrms. 
of phosphate of lime would, according to the analysis, 
have been separated from 1000 grms. of soil. If the water 
extracted one fortieth of one per cent, of these substances, 
the analysis would, of course, indicate only one half of 
the quantity of potash and phosphate of lime mentioned. 

Drain water contains — according to Krocker's and 
Way's analysis — toHo to tattoo of dissolved mineral 
substances. 

The relation of arable soil to mineral nutritive sub- 
stances, which exist in the soil or are conveyed to it in 
manure, result in some conclusions and applications of 
great importance to practical agriculture. The first in- 
ference is : that the quantity of ingredients absorbed in 
such cultivated plants as derive their nourishment directly 
from the soil, in a given time and under otherwise equal 
conditions, increases in proportion to the extent of the 
surface of roots, and that the fertility of soil is limited by 
its contents of nutritive matter in each part of the inters 



ABSORBING QUALITIES OF SOILS. 215 

section of the soil downward as far as the roots reach. 
Liebior observes, in his Chemical Letters: 

" The principal effect of manure on our fields seems to consist, in 
many cases, in the circumstance that the upper crust of the fields is 
more abundantly supplied with nourishment; the plants shoot out, 
therefore, during the period of their development, a tenfold, perhaps 
a hundred and a thousand-fold of (root) fibers ; their subsequent 
growth is in proportion to this number of organs, by which they 
are enabled to find and to appropriate the less copious nutritious 
matter of deeper strata. This may be the reason why a compara- 
tively small quantity of ammonia, alkalies and phosphates increases 
the fertility to such a high degree." 



PART II. 



CHAPTER I. 



P R A C T I C AL DRAINAGE. 

Before commencing drainage operations, many thingy 
are to be taken into account, the most important of which, 
in all probability, to the farmer, is, what kind of drains 
shall be made. Where lands can be purchased from $5 
to |15 per acre, it would, perhaps, not be advisable to 
underdrain Avith tile, at a cost from $15 to $25 or $30 
per acre. 

Drainage is designed to be a permanent improvement ; 
as much so as building a house or barn. In all farm im- 
provements, the farmer in the West is proverbial for 
" cutting the coat according to the cloth." The western 
farmer is emphatically a practicable man, makes use of 
such means and materials as he can command, whether it 
be in accordance with any system " found in books," or 
not ; and to this fact, perhaps, as much as to anything 
else, do we owe the amount of progress made in agricul- 
ture in the state of Ohio, and in the West generally. If 
the farmer had withheld all improvements, until they could 
have been made in the most approved manner, we possi- 
bly might yet be in the full enjoyment of log cabins and 
" gar skin " plows throughout the state. Instead of pur- 
suing that policy, however, they have more generally 
adapted themselves to the circumstances by which they 
were surrounded, and made such improvements as their 
20 CJ17) 



218 LAND DRAINAGE. 

means warranted, and it is, perhaps, best for the perma- 
nent progress and improvement in agriculture, that the 
same policy should be pursued with regard to under- 
draining. 

As there are several ways of underdraining, and differ- 
ent materials, or no materials at all, employed in keeping 
open the water-courses, we will in a synoptical manner 
enumerate the various kinds of drains, and then devote 
more space to giving the details of each kind of drain. 

MATERIALS FOR KEEPING OPEN THE WATER-COURSES. 

1. Wood. — This material has long been used, in vari- 
ous forms, for making drains. In swamps, where a gene- 
ral outlet is secured by an open ditch, the side drains 
leading into it, as well as drains made for the cure of 
springy places, are often kept open by the brush that is 
usually found growing in such places. It is doubtless bad 
economy to use brush, when a better material is at hand ; 
but as this is not always the case, it will be found that a 
brush drain is much better than none. Saplings, or round 
sticks, or split wood, are frequently used, cut into equal 
lengths of three or four feet, and put in the drains at an 
angle, in the same manner as brush. Or a different plan 
may be adopted. Straight sticks, of any length, may be 
used, by laying one on each side of the drain, leaving the 
necessary space between ; then a third pole, or piece, is 
laid upon them, so as to cover the space, and prevent the 
side pieces from crowding together. Timber is sometimes 
split into thin, wide pieces, resembling staves, or the shakes 
formerly used for the covering log houses, and a water- 
course is obtained by laying one edge of each piece on 
the bottom, on one side of the drain, and letting the other 
edge lean against the other side, some inches from the 
bottom. In this case, the drains must be dug narrow, or 



MATERIALS FOR DRAINS. 219 

the stuff split sufficiently wide, so that it can not be forced 
down flat into the bottom of the drain. For short dis- 
tances, lumber is occasionally used. A narrow board 
forms the bottom of the drain ; a piece of scantling forms 
each side, and another board makes the top. This is an 
expensive method; and although the drain is good Avhile 
it lasts, it is not especially durable. The choice of these 
various forms of wood drains must depend on the kind 
most readily obtained. 

Turf Drains. — Almost everybody, perhaps, has heard 
of turf drains, and, therefore, the question may naturally 
arise, if turf drains will answer, why incur the expense of 
tiles? Before tiles were as cheap in the British Isles as 
they are at present, millions of acres were drained with 
turf. One method was to dig the drain Avedge-shaped, 
or much the narrowest at the bottom; then the turf, which 
had been taken from the top, was cut of such a width 
and shape with the spade, that when inverted and laid in 
carefully, it would rest eight or ten inches from the bot- 
tom, and support all the earth thrown upon it, in filling 
in the drain, leaving a small wedge-shaped channel at the 
bottom, which lasted many years. Another plan consisted 
in cutting down the sides perpendicularly, to within eight 
or ten inches of the intended bottom ; then, with a narrow 
spade, or one made with one edge turned up about two 
inches, a narrow channel was dug, and good shoulders left, 
on which the turf could be firmly laid. These turf drains, 
in clayey land, and where the work was well done, often 
lasted a lifetime. Of late years, however, tile have super- 
seded turf in all kinds of soil. Turf drains are, perhaps, 
more familiarly known as wedge and shoulder drains. 

Mole Ploivs. — These were extensively used in various 
parts of Europe, some fifty years ago. They seem to be 
attracting some attention in this country, at the present 



220 LAND DRAINAGE. 

time. On lands where the subsoil is a tolerably soft and 
plastic clay, without stones, and where the surface has a 
regular inclination, they do good service; and the water- 
courses opened in this w'ay, often continue for many 
years. 

Stone. — Drains of stone are formed either by placing them 
so as to secure a clear water- course, or the drain is par- 
tially filled up with small stones thrown in, and the water 
is left to find its way between them. A good water-way 
may be secured either by placing a stone on each side of 
the bottom, and laying a flat stone upon them, or by set- 
ting a flat stone upon the edge, on one side of the drain, 
and leaning another flat stone against it from the other 
side. In either way, care must be taken to cover well, 
with more stones, all the spaces through which sand or 
earth might pass to obstruct the drain. When small 
stones arc thrown in to form a drain, a great many 
troublesome little stones may be disposed of, and a tol- 
erable drain made, but it is very liable to become choked 
with sand or earth, and so made useless. In short, almost 
all drains, made with timber or stones, are liable to be in- 
jured by lobsters or moles, or be otherwise destroyed and 
rendered unsatisfactory. 

Tiles. — ^Where good tiles can be obtained, at a reason- 
able rate, no other material should be used, under any cir- 
cumstances, because no other material makes so perfect a 
drain, is so durable, or so cheap. The value of tiles de- 
pend upon their form, the quality of the clay of which 
they are made, and the perfection of the burning. Horse- 
shoe tiles — that is, those of which the end represents a 
semicircle, with the sides compressed a little, were, many 
years since, extensively used in England ; but this 
form has, by everybody in that country, been abandoned 
for better. The water running through them, softens the 



TILE DRAINS. 221 

floor on which they stand, and consequentlj one, or both 
sides sink down, and the drain is obstructed. This diffi- 
culty is obviated by the use of soles, of the same or some 
other suitable material ; but this adds to the expense and 
trouble of laying. Narrow boards are used in this coun- 
try instead of soles. This increases the cost, and the 
drains, when finished, have only the durability of the wood 
that is used. Sole tiles are, in general, nearly of the same 
form, but with the sole added in the manufacture. These 
are far better than horse-shoe tiles, but are still liable to 
some objections. Being widest at the bottom, the stream 
of water, when but little is flowing, is spread out over a 
wide surface, or it makes for itself a narrow channel, 
which turns from side to side of the tiles, and deposits in 
its course the sand which always finds its way into the 
drains, sometimes stopping them altogether; while, if the 
tiles were contracted at the bottom, the water would flow 
along the center in a straight line, and carry the sand out 
of the drain. Another objection grows out of the neces- 
sity of laying them all the same side up ; for, if warped 
in drying or burning, as tiles are liable to be, it is impos- 
sible, at all times, to make perfect joints. A form of sole 
tile became very popular for a time in England, having 
the sole very narrow, and wholly on the outside, while 
the inside was contracted at the bottom, so that the open- 
ing was egg-shaped, and stood the small end down. This 
form perfectly obviated the first objection, but was open 
to the second, and this in practice was found so serious 
that this form of tile has been abandoned. Pipe tile, as 
perfectly round as they can be made, are now the most 
approved by experienced drainers. The principal advan- 
tages of this form are, the ease with which they are laid, 
for as all sides are alike, and the tiles are warped in dry- 
ing or burning, there is no difficulty in so turning them 



222 LAND DRAINAGE. 

as to secure a perfectly level water-course, and at the 
same time make perfect joints ; they also confine the 
stream to the center of the channel, and, therefore, leave 
in the tile no deposit of sand ; it is also easier to prepare 
the bottom of the drain for their reception. The advan- 
tages are so decisive, that every one about to purchase 
a tile machine, of whatever pattern, should order pipe 
dies ; and any one who has the choice of diiferent forms, 
should select pipes, in preference to any other, for laying. 
But more on this subject in the proper place. 

Therefore, in regions where stone or tile are scarce, or 
would prove more expensive than in districts where they 
are more abundant, and especially in sections where land 
is cheap, it Avould be as well to commence with 

BRUSH DRAINS. 

On lands where stones are scarce and tile dear, but 
where a good descent for the drains may be had, brush 
drains will answer a good purpose. Being nearly ex- 
cluded from air, the brush will not decay so rapidly as 
where more exposed. We have read accounts of some 
brush drains doing good service for fifteen years ; other 
accounts are to the effect that they cave in and become 
useless in the course of three or four years. Much, of 
course, depends upon the character of the soil in which 
they are made. In situations where the drains will be 
required to carry ofi" a large amount of water, it must be 
expected that the sides and bottom will ^oash more or 
less — the more rapidly it Avashes, as a matter of course, 
the sooner will the drains become useless. At best they 
act upon the same principle as the filter in the ley leach 
or vat. 

" The drain for brush is dug like any other drain, but is best if a 
foot or more wide. The brush may be cut a few feet in length, and 



BRUSH DRAINS. 223 

should not be more than an inch or two in diameter. If the 
branches are straight and nearly parallel, they may be larger and 
longer than if crooked and spreading. In the latter instance they 
must be cut quite short, or they will not lie well. Commence al- 
ways at the upper end, and let the butts rest on the bottom of the 
drain, with the tops pointing upward, or from the descent. This 
position tends constantly to throw the descending water to the bot- 
tom or lowest part of the drain. If a sufficient quantity of brush 
be laid in to fill .the ditch, it will occupy, after being trodden down 
and the earth filled in, only about one third of the ditch. Inverted 
turf forms a good cover for the brush, before throwing the earth in. 
The sides should be nearly parpendicular, or the brush will not set- 
tle well. 

" Being nearly excluded from air, the brush will last many years. 
Some kinds, as for example, cedar, will last much longer than others. 
But even when quite decayed, there will still be a good channel for 
the escape of the water, in the many veins left among the decayed 
branches, the earth having become compact and well settled above, 
especially in soils of some tenacity." ^ 

Mr. French says : 

" Open the trench to the depth required, and about twelve inchea 
wide at the bottom. Lay into this poles of four or five inches di- 
ameter at the butt, leaving an open passage between. Then lay in 
brush of any size, the coarsest at the bottom, filling the drain to 
within a foot of the surface, and covering with pine, or hemlock, or 
spruce boughs. Upon these lay turf, carefully cut, as close as pos- 
sible. The brush should be laid butt-end up stream, as it obstructs 
the water less in this way. Fill up with soil a foot above the sur- 
face, and tread it in as hard as possible. The weight of earth will 
compress the brush, and the surface will settle very much. We 
have tried placing boards at the sides, and upon the top of the 
brush, to prevent the caving in, but with no great success. Although 
our drains thus laid, have generally continued to discharge some 
water, yet they have, upon upland, been dangerous traps and pit- 
falls for our horses and cattle, and have cost much labor to fill up 
the holes, where they have fallen through by washing away below." 

The brush should be laid, as Mr. Thomas says, so as to 
" let the butts rest on the bottom of the drain," and at 

1 J. J. Thomas, in Rural Register. 



224 LAND DRAINAGE. 

the same time have the butts laid " clown stream," and 
not up stream, as directed by Mr. French. Where the 
butts are laid up stream, from some cause or other, the 
drains choke much sooner than when laid the contrary 
way. If the water Avere to pass over the brush instead 
of under or through it, Mr. French's directions would be 
correct. 

The French system (or system practiced in France) of 
brush drains is perhaps the best. At the bottom of the 
drain short pieces of wood are driven in to the depth of 




Fig. 13. 

several inches, as at a a, Fig. 13, on which the brush is 
laid as indicated in the cut. But unless the drains are in a 
stiff clay, the wash will be so great that in a few years 
the whole drain will be useless. 

A very practical gentleman, who is an occasional cor- 
respondent of the Country Gentleman, says : 

"We have at different times within the past fifteen years, made 
use of small poles for filters in our drains — have used various kinds, 
such as hemlock, spruce, birch, maple, and recently, black alder 
poles. These last were from one to three inches in diameter at the 
t-tump, and from ten to twenty feet long. The drains were two and 
a half feet deep, and about ten inches wide at the bottom. Com- 
mence at the upper end of the ditch; lay in from four to six poles, 
according to size, and so on to the end of the ditch, lapping the 
poles, as directed in filling in brush. Have ready a supply of hem- 
lock, cedar, or spruce boughs, and immediately cover the poles, to 
prevent the soil from the sides of the ditch falling in and clogging. 
After the boughs are nicely shingled over the poles, step into the 
ditch, drawing in with a hoe a few inches of soil, treading it solid; 



BRUSH DRAINS, 



225 



working backward, so as to press the covering firm upon the poles. 
The ditch can then be finally filled with the shovel or plow. 

" Drains thus made fifteen years ago, and at many times since, 
are this day running as freely as any tile or stone drain would dis- 
charge the water. A few years since, I drained a wet, flat, frost- 
heaving piece of land ; before it was drained it was nearly worth- 
less, now it will annually pay the net interest of more than one 
hundred dollars per acre. It was sowed with winter wheat the first 
of last September; early in February, the snow disappeared, since 
which time the surface of the soil has been frozen and thawed more 
than twenty times, yet none of the wheat plants are thrown out or 
winter-killed, and the field is as green as when the snow came last 
November. Without drainage, we think wheat on this land could 
not have lived at all through such a severe trial. In thorough un- 
derdraining there is much hard work and expense, but as far as our 
experience goes, it is a thing that will pay^ 

In many portions of the country, 
drains are made as follows : Two poles 
or saplings are laid on opposite sides 
at the bottom of the drain ; then a 
third pole or sapling, somewhat larger 
in diameter, is laid over the two, as 
represented in Fig. 14 ; when the poles 
are laid down, the ditch is then filled 
with the material which was dug out 
of it. Drains of this kind, particu- 
larly in wet, swampy or mucky land, 
answer a good purpose for ten or fif- 
teen years. Many such drains are to fig. u. 
be found in Northwestern Ohio, where they have given 
general satisfaction. 

In constructing drains of this kind, the poles should be 
covered with turf, or some other material, to prevent the 
earth from being admitted between or under the poles. 
In some instances straw, small stones, and even brush have 
been placed on the poles in order to make the drains 




226 „ LAND DRAINAGE. 

" draw^^ as it is called ; but tins is simply material and labor 
lost, because the water Avill very readily find its way into 
the drains, and wash out the bottom and destroy the whole 
drain, if great care is not exercised in constructing them. 
In some parts of the county, fence rails are used instead 
of poles. But neither brush, stone, poles, nor rails should 
be used, if tile can be obtained at reasonable prices. The 
digging and filling up of the drain cost about the same, 
whether brush, poles or tiles are used, and since tile will 
last so much longer, we have cited an instance where tile 
were laid in 1620, and has made the ground more fertile 
for all subsequent time, until their removal; it is but rea- 
sonable to conclude that tile are in the end much the 
cheapest, Underdraining at once produces a marked ef- 
fect upon the crops, whether the conduits are made of 
brush, poles or tile; the owner of the land is not obliged 
to wait for years for a remunerative result, as in the case 
of planting an orchard; therefore, where the farmer can 
command the means, it is by all means advisable to make 
the he^t kinds of drains. 

PLUG DRAINING, OR SUBSOIL DRAINING. 

This system of underdraining does not require the use 
of any foreign materials, the channel for the Avater being 
wholly formed of clay, to which this kind of drain is alone 
suited. It was the invention of Mr. Lumbert, a highly 
talented agriculturist, at that time living at Wick Rissing- 
ton, Gloucestershire (England), where he made the first ex- 
periment about the year 1803 ;^ in 1845, the tenant (Wm. 
Bliss), wrote to Mr. Newman, as follows: 

" In answer to your letter I have the pleasure of stating that the 
drains in the field you named are as perfect as when you last wrote me, 

1 Charles Newman. Hints on Practical Land Dmina'jc. London, 1845. 



BRUSH DRAINS. 227 

iiiid as likely to last as when fir.st made ; and my opinion is that if 
drains are well rammed, and not made Avhen the weather is frosty, 
the clay draining will last as long as any other drain that can bo 
made. What I have ever seen foil in this neighborhood, has been 
in a year or two after being made, and in my opinion resulted from 
not being properly rammed down, or allowing the work to be done in 
frost, which has the eflect of causiag the clay to crumble into the 
drain." 

This method of draining requires a particular set of 
tools for its execution; consisting of, first, a common 
spade, by means of which, the first spit is removed, and 
laid on one side ; second, a smaller sized spade, by means 
of which the second spit is taken out, and laid on the 
opposite side of the trench thus formed; third, a peculiar 
instrument called a bitting iron, consisting of a narrow 
spade three and a half feet in length, and one and a half 
inches wide at the mouth, and sharpened like a chisel — 
the mouth, or blade, being half an inch in thickness, in 
order to give the necessary strength to so slender an im- 
plement. From the mouth, on the right hand side, a wing 
of steel, six inches long, and two and a half broad, pro- 
jects at right angles; and on the left, at fourteen inches 
from the mouth, a tread, three inches long, is fitted. 

The method of using this tool is as follows : When the 
first and second spits have been removed, the bitting iron 
is pushed down into the soft clay to the required depth of 
the drain ; it is then withdrawn, and, after being turned 
round, is again pushed down to the same depth as before, 
but six inches further back in the trench. By these two 
cuts, a piece of clay, six inches in length and of the depth 
to which the tool had been pushed, is separated on all 
sides, withdrawn by the tool, and deposited beside the 
second spit. These operations are repeated until a neatly 
formed trench is completed, from which any crumbs are 
removed by a narrow scoop. 



228 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



A number of blocks of wood 
(see Fig. 15), each one foot 
long, six inches high, and two 
inches thick at the bottom, and 
two and a half at the top, are 
next required. From four to 
six of these are joined to- 
getlier by pieces of hoop-iron 
let into their sides by a saw 
draught ; a small space being 
left between their ends, so 
tliat when completed, the 
Avhole forms a somewhat flex- 
ible bar, as shown in the cut ; 
to one end of which a stout 
chain is attached. These 
blocks are welted, and placed 
with the narrow end under- 
most in the bottom of the 
ditch, which should be cut so 
as to fit them closely ; the 
clay which has been dug out 
is then to be returned by de- 
grees upon the blocks and rammed down with wooden 
rammers three inches wide. As soon as the portion of 
the trench above the blocks, or plugs, has been filled, they 
are drawn forward, by means of a lever thrust through a 
link of the chain, and into the bottom of the drain for a 
fulcrum, until they are all again exposed, except the last 
one. The further portion of the trench, above the blocks, 
is now filled in and rammed, and so on, the operations 
proceed until the whole is finished. 

Plug draining should never be used when there is a 
want of fall in the drains, or when there is any risk of 




m^P0^^-V''- ''■ 



^vK' 



MB" 



WEDGE AND SHOULDER DRAINS. 



229 



flooding, for the tubes formed in the clay are rapidly de- 
stroyed when any water remains standing in the drain. 

Plug draining, as may readily be supposed, can not be 
executed very cheaply. The nicety required in all the 
operations connected with it demands the services of skill- 
ful workmen, so that it sometimes exceeds the cost of tile 
draining. It can only be carried on on lands which yields 
the material for making pipes; and now that (thanks to 
railways) coals are so much at the command of most 
districts, it can not be recommended ; and is mentioned 
here rather as a method which has been used than with 
any view to encourage its adoption. 



WEDGE AND SHOULDER DRAINS. 

These were made to a considerable extent, in foi'mcr 
times in England, even after the mole plow was laid aside, 
although they are of the same general character of the 
plug and mole plow drains, that is, no foreign material is 
required to form a water channel. Figs. 16 and 17 pre- 
sent a sectional view of the wedge and shoulder drains 
respectively. The description of them we copy from 
3Iorton^s Cyclopaedia of Agriculture. 








Fis. 17. — Shoui.dee Drain. 

Wedge and Shoulder Drains. — These, like the last- 



230 LAND DRAINAGE. 

mentioned drains, are mere channels formed in the sub- 
soil. They have, therefore, the same fault of want of 
durability, and are totally unfit for land under the plow. 

In forming wedge drains, the first spit, with the turf 
attached, is laid on one side, and the earth, removed from 
the remainder of the trench, is laid on the other. The 
last spade used is very narrow, and tapers rapidly, so as 
to form a narrow wedge-shaped cavity for the bottom of 
the trench. The turf first removed, is then cut into a 
■wedge so much larger than the size of the lower part of 
the drain, that when rammed into it with the grassy side 
undermost, it leaves a vacant space in the bottom, of six 
or eight inches in depth. 

The Shoulder Drain does not differ materially from the 
wedge drain. Instead of the whole trench, forming a 
gradually tapering wedge, the upper portion of the shoul- 
der drain has the sides of the trench nearly perpendicu- 
lar, and of considerable width, the last spit only being 
taken out with a narrow tapering spade, by which means 
a shoulder is left on either side, from which it takes its 
name. After the trench has been finished, the first spit, 
having the grassy side downward, as in the former case, 
is placed in the trench and pushed down till it rests upon 
the shoulders already mentioned, so that a narrow wedge- 
shaped channel is again left for the water. 

These drains may be formed in almost any kind of land 
which is not a loose gravel or sand. They are a very 
cheap kind of a drain ; for neither the cost of cutting, 
nor filling in, much exceeds that of the ordinary tile 
drain ; while the expense of tiles, or other materials, is 
altogether saved; still such drains can not be recom- 
mended, for they are very liable to injury, and even can 
only last a very limited time. 



THE MOLE PLOW. 231 

MOLE PLOW. 

After the advantages consequent upon unclerdraining 
became apparent to English farmers, they conceived the 
idea of underdraining by machinery. Several ploAvs were 
invented and patented in England, the object of which Avas 
to make surface drains of a few inches depth only. The 
first account of a mole plow which we have succeeded in 
finding is in the '■'■Repertory of Arts and Sciences" vol. 8, 
a serial London publication, commencing about the year 
1796. This is the first record we could find of an imple- 
ment or machine with which covered or underground drains 
were successfully made. It was pretty generally used 
throughout England during a few years, but was soon laid 
aside — at least, we find no reference made to it as being 
in general use after about 1805. The following, from Mr. 
Newman's work on drainage, indicates that greater confi- 
dence was reposed in plug drains than in the drains made 
by the mole plow : 

"I should state that the mole plow, worked by a windlass, ivaa a 
favorite machine of Mr. Lumbert [the inventor of plug draining], 
for which he had a patent. After his invention of the subsoil sys- 
tem, the mole plow was laid aside — a great proof of the superiority 
of the former. Although it must be admitted that the windlass 
mole plow, on soils suited for its purpose, is a very useful machine, 
it is only calculated for strong clay land; and even on such land it 
has been frequently found that there is a degree of uncertainty aris- 
ing from some sorts of clay being too soft, and consequently filling 
up the orifice and spoiling the drain. It may, however, be consid- 
ered useful as a temporary and cheap method for the tenant, but it 
can not be called an effectual measure." 

We intended at first merely to mention the mole plow 
as one of the means devised years ago, and then aban- 
doned, for making drains. But the many recent successes 
with it in the state of Ohio, in Fayette, Clinton, Madison 



232 



LAND miAIXAGE. 



and Union counties, make it worthy of more than a mere 
passing notice. We, therefore, copy the account of the 
first mole plow (Fig. 18) from the Repertory of Arts and 
Sciences : 

THE PIONEER MOLE PLOW. 




DESCRIPTION OF A MACHINE FOR DRAINING LAND, CALLED A 
MOLE PLOW.^ 

" For this invention a bounty of thirty guineas was voted to Mr. 
Scott ^, who has described the manner of using the machine in the 
following letter: 

"The bounty above mentioned was given to Mr. iScott in the 
spring of the year 1797, and, in the month of October following, a 
patent was taken out by Mr. Henry Watts, for an implement for 
draining land, the similarity of which to Mr. Scott's mole plow it is 
unnecessary for us to point out; but what we think highly import- 
ant to inform the public is, that Mr. Scott, who sold his mole plow 
for two guineas and a half (indeed, Mr. Welton's letter says, 'the 
price of the plow complete is about two guineas'), is now the agent 



1 By Mr. Adam Scott, of Guildford Survey. — [From the Transactions of 
the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce.] 

2 When bounties for machines, etc., are given by the Society, it is always 
upon the condition that the machine, or a model thereof, shall be deposited 
in the Society's collection, for the use of the public; it is also expressly 
stated, that " no person shall Teceivo any premium, bounty or encourage- 
ment from the Society, for any matter for which he has obtained, or pro- 
poses to obtain, a patent." 



THE MOLE PLOW. 233 

for the sale of Mr. Watts' patent improvement, at the enormous 
price of ten guineas. Such of our readers as desire a further ac- 
count of this matter, will find a long letter concerning it in the Gen- 
tk'7naii's Magazine for February : 

" The mole plow has been used in Sutton Park, for John Webbe 
Weston, Esq., these three years past, and is found to answer every 
purpose of underground draining, without breaking the surface any 
more than by a thin coulter being drawn along, the mark of which 
disappears in a few days. A man and boy, with four horses, may 
drain thirty acres in a day, provided there is an open gripe or ditch 
cut at the lower side of the ground to be thus drained, in order to 
receive the water from those small cavities which the plow forms in 
the ground, at the depth of twelve inches or more. The method of 
using it is, to go down and up, at the distance of fifteen, twenty or 
thirty feet, as the land may requii-e. This alludes to grass lands; 
but it is equally good for turnips, when it is too wet for sheep to feed 
them ofi", or on any land that is too wet to sow; either of which evils 
it will remedy in a very short time, provided there is some declivity 
in the ground. The best time for this operation, in grass lands, is 
in October or November, when the land has received moisture enough 
for the plow to work, and not so much as to injure the land or ren- 
der it soft. 

" A further account of this plow is given in the following letter 
from Mr. Weston, dated Sutton Place, December 9, ] 795 : 

" ' With respect to the mole plow, I really think too much can not 
1)0 said in its commendation ; for the purpose of temporary drain- 
ing, where such is useful, as is the case with great part of my land 
laid down to grass, it being on a declivity, and is too wet (in the 
autumn and winter only), after great falls of rain or snow. It being 
free from land springs, I conceived it improper to be underdrained 
in the usual way, as thereby the moisture necessary for its produc- 
ing a crop of grass would be carried off equally at all seasons. 

" ' The soil is very light, but not sandy, to the depth of from nine 
to eighteen inches, or more ; and underneath is a strong clay, which 
renders the surface absolutely pouchy in winter; but, from the use 
of this instrument, the ground on which a man could not walk will, in 
the course of forty-eight hours, be enabled to carry any cattle. From 
ten to twenty acres may be easily-drained in one day, by a single 
team, which makes the expense trifling, though it should be neces- 
sary to be done every year. 

" 'The drains made by the plow should be in direct lines, at from 

21 



234 LAND DRAINAGE. 

ton to twenty feet apart, and all vent themselves into an open furrow 
or i^ripe at the bottom. I have used this machine for four seasons 
past, and with great success. The price of the plow complete is 
about two guineas. The plow, to the best of my knowledge, is the 
sole invention of my steward, Adam Scott, whose ingenuity on this 
and many other occasions deserves every encouragement.' 

"There are also two letters from Edmund Bochen, Esq.; the first 
from IJurwood Park, dated March 20, 1796, is as follows: 

" 'Mr. Scott's mole plow is so contrived that it makes the drains 
from one foot to eighteen inches deep ; the bore two inches and a 
half in diameter; the soil rather a stiff clay. I made use of six 
hoi-ses, but am inclined to think, from the ease with which they 
worked it, that four would be fully sufficient. I shall have, next 
season, a better opportunity of coming to a certainty on the subject. 
Should you wish for further information, I shall then be happy to 
communicate what may have occurred. 

" 'I apprehend this plow can only answer in soils where it is not 
likely to meet with any material obstruction; in mine, I flatter my- 
self, I shall find much benefit result from its use.' 

"In his second letter, from Ottershaw Park, dated Eebruai-y 12 
1 797, Mr. Bochen says : 

" ' On the first of this month, in light land, my drain being fourteen 
inches deep, I worked the jdIow, without difficulty, with two oxen and 
three horses ; but, in the strong clays, found it work enough for four 
horses and two oxen, although I reduced my depth two inches. The 
drains 1 have drawn on low wet lands and clay run instantly after 
the plow. On these lands I have generally drawn the drains about 
twenty feet asunder, and find them much firmer and drier. I con- 
ceive that, except in very heavy land, four oxen would be sufficient, 
and fully equal to two oxen and three horses, as the former step and 
consequently draw much better. 

" ' The mole plow, in my opinion, fully answers the intents in such 
lands as it can properly work in ; my only objection being to the 
strength required to woi'k it, which makes it impracticable when a 
large team is not kept. 

" ' It may be worthy remark, that the last year's draius, which 
were in clay, are as entire, and run as freely, as the first moment 
they were made.' " 

Major Dickinson, of Steuben county, New York, ap- 
pears to have been the first one to introduce the mole plow 



THE MOLE PLOAV. 235 

in this country. Major Dickinson himself, in a recent ad- 
dress, thus speaks of what he calls his 

SHANGHAE PLOW. 

" I Avill take the poorest acre of stubble ground, and, if too wet 
for corn in the first place, I will thoroughly drain it with a Shanghae 
plow and four yoke of oxen in three hours. 

" I will suppose the acre to be twenty rods long and eight rods 
wide. To thoroughly drain the worst of your clay subsoil, it may 
require a drain once in eight feet, and they can be made so cheaply 
that 1 can afford to make them at that distance. To do so, will re- 
quire the team to ti-avel sixteen times over the twenty rods length- 
wise, or one mile in three hours ; two men to drive, one to hold the 
plow, one to ride the beam, and one to carry the crowbar, pick up 
any large stones thrown out by going to the right or left, and to help 
to carry around the plow, which is too heavy for the other two to do 
quickly. 

"The plow is quite simple in its construction, consisting of a 
round piece of iron, three and a half or four inches in diameter, 
drawn down to a point, with a furrow cut in the top one and a half 
inches deep; a plate, eighteen inches wide and three feet long, with 
one end welded into the furrow of the round bar, while the other is 
fastened to the beam. The colter is six inches in width, and is fast- 
ened to the beam at one end, and at the other to the point of the 
round bar. The colter and plate are each three fourths of an inch 
thick, Avhich is the entire width of the plow above the round iron 
at the bottom. 

"It would require much more power to draw this plow on some 
soils than on yours. The strength of team depends entirely on the 
character of the subsoil. Cast iron, with the exception of the colter, 
for an easy soil would be equally good ; and from eighteen to twen- 
ty-four inches is sufiiciently deep to run the plow. I can as thor- 
oughly drain an acre of ground in this way as any that can be found 
in Seneca county." 

Within the past three or four years, some five or six 
patents have been granted to persons in Madison county, 
Ohio, for improvements on the mole plow. These Ohio 
mole plows, as well as the Marquis and Emerson or Go- 



236 



LAND DRAINAGE. 




plier plow of Illinois, are operated by a capstan, as shown 
in Fig. 19. 

Fig. 19 is a view of the sweep power, capstan, cable 
and plow, in operation. The team is driven around the 
capstan attached to the lever, by which the cable is wound 

upon the capstan, 
and the plow thus 
d r a AV n forward. 
FF are anchor 
stakes, to secure 
the power in place 
while being oper- 
ated. The cable 
is 100 feet long, 
and, when the 
^^^ ^ plow is drawn up 
Fig. 20. to the first anchor 

stakes, the team is hitched to the body of the power, and 
it is dragged forward 100 feet, and set again for another 
turn. In the plow,' the shank, B, is set to go the desired 
depth. This machine is the one made by Lane & Loomer, 
of Lockport, 111. Fig 20 is a view of the mole and foot 
of the shank ; this mole is in flexible sections. 

Figs. 21 and 22 represent Rowland & Forbis' mole 
plow, of London, Ohio, patented in 1859 ; it is also known 
as the Witherow plow. 

The improvements here represented are said to be well 
adapted to the purposes intended ; and the simplicity of 
the adjusting apparatus, in combination with the strength 
of the supports, is certainly theoretically much in its favor. 
Fig. 21 represents an elevation of the machine ; and Fig. 
22 is a plan or a view taken when looking down upon it. 
Similar letters refer to similar parts in both figures. 
At A, are the runners for carrying and guiding the 




FIG. 19. 



THE JIOLE PLOAV. 



237 



front part of the machine. Upon the cross bar of " this 
sled" rests the end of the beam, B, to which the draft is 
attached bj the rope, and through the sled by the bolt, l. 





FiQ. 22. 




Fio. 21. 



The rear end of this beam, B, is supported by the cord or 
rope, and the windlass, by means of which the depth of 
the mole is regulated. C, is another beam, fastened by 
iron couplings to the beam, B, as shown at c and b, and 
having its rear end resting upon the axis of the trucks, 1 1. 



238 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



Upon this axis are placed the supports, D D, Avhich sustain 
the windlass. These supports are stayed by the rods, s s, 
and hence can be inclined backward, as shown in Fig. 21. 

E, is the arm to which the 
moles, r and J, are attached. 
It is fastened securel}' in 
the rear end of the beam, B, 
by the iron bolt, m, and 
keys, n n, and passing 
through a mortise in the 
beam, C, works up and down 
against the friction roller, 
at /, and, as is evident, re- 
ceives great resistance from 
it. The advantage of hav- 
ing the mole, J, attached as 
here shown at y, is, that it 
may yield to stones and 
other objects which would 
be likely to break it. 

There is at K, a cutter 
bolted underneath the beam, 
C, which opens the sod and 
separates roots, etc., before 
the arm, E. 

Letters patent were grant- 
ed for these valuable ar- 
rangements April 19, 1859, 
to H. W. Rowland and E. 
Forbis, and the right was as- 
signed to themselves and 
Washington Witherow. 
Fig. 23 represents the 
Cole & Wall mole plow. A, is the beam, in which a wheel 




THE MOLE ri,OW, 



239 



at B, moves in a mortise ; at D, is a circular cutter, in- 
tended to cut tlie sod, and thus lessen friction. E, is a 
cutter bar or arm, to Avliich the moles, F anS G, are at- 
tached ; the mole, G, has a fin, H, attached to the under 



^^M'^^f/^K^f-'-m^ 





surface ; C, is a 
wheel, to the 
axle of which 
two stout iron 
bars, J and K, 
are attached. 
The bar J, 
serves as a reg- 
ulator of the 
cutter, E, ele- 
vating or de- 
pressing the 
mole the depth 
of the beam, A. 

Fig. 24 rep- 
resents the 
mole and cut- 
ter of the Bales' 
mole plow. 

The improve- 
ment here rep- 
resented p e r- 
tains principal- 
ly to the mole 
and cutter — its 
adjustability to 
various depths, etc. A, represents the beam ; B, the cut- 
ter shaft, which is made of cast steel, made light and 
sharp, and polished, so as to pass through the ground 
smooth and as easily as possible, that the ground may 




240 



LAKD DRAINAGE. 




'//, readily close be- 



of a wedge, having 
a sharp edge in 
front, and so curv- 
ed in its upper 
surface as to form 
an arch-shaped 
trench, as shown 
in section D D,^ 5 
by 7 inches. The 
mole is hollow in 
the bottom, so as 
to prevent its 
pressing the bot- 
tom, permitting 
the water to rise 
freely through the 
bottom, and made 
of cast steel well 
polished. 

Fig. 25 repre- 
sents A. Defen- 
baugh's mole 
plow. The mole 
to this plow is at- 
tached by a stout 
link to the lower 
portion of the cut- 
ter bar, or colter, 
E. The mole, H, 
has a circular fin, 
w, attached to it, 
and the sides of 



THE MOLE PLOW. 241 

the mole are furnished with friction blocks or pulleys, k Ic 
k k, on each side. The colter is fixed and not adjustable, 
but the beam, D, may be elevated or depressed, by means 
of the Avindlass, B. The forward end of the beam is at- 
tached to a shoe or sled, E F. 

It would require a very strong team to operate one of 
these plows if the power were applied directly — that is, 
if the team were attached to the end of the beam, as in 
the case of the ordinary plow. But, by employing a cap- 
stan, as represented in Fig. 19, two yoke of oxen can 
operate it with comparative ease. By attaching a dyna- 
mometer at the end of the lever or sweep to which the 
team is hitched, it appears that about 250 pounds is all 
the draught required to cut a mole 36 to 40 inches in ordin- 
ary moist clay ; but if the dynamometer is attached where 
the cable is attached to the beam (D, Fig. 19), the direct 
draught is indicated, and amounts to about 5,000 pounds. 
By a simple arithmetical process the direct draught is 
readily determined, viz : multiply the power applied at the 
end of the lever or sweep, by the length of the sweep in 
inches (counting from the center of the capstan or reel), 
and divide the product by half the diameter of the reel or 
capstan ; the quotient will be the direct amount of power 
required to operate the implement or machine. For ex- 
ample, the sweep, in Fig. 19, to which the oxen are at- 
tached, measures 16J feet or 198 inches ; the capstan or 
reel measures 16 inches in diameter, and the dynamometei" 
indicates a draught of 250 pounds ; ivhat is the actual 
force or poAver necessary to operate the plow? 

250 pounclsX198 inches=49,500-^-8 iuclie3=6,187i2 pounds. 

After the reel or spool has been wound full from top to 
bottom, the doubling of the cable on the reel will cause an 
increase of power to be applied; the double cord or thread 
will make the dynamometer indicate an increase of 75 to 

99 



242 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



100 pounds ; thus making, in the above-named instance 
(with a two-inch cable) the actual draught to be 6,435 
pounds. 

During the first days of July, 1859, a trial of five dif- 
ferent patents of the mole plow was had at London, Mad- 
ison county, at which the writer acted as chairman of the 
examining and awarding committee. It is not deemed 
inappropriate to insert the report of that committee in 
this place — the writer having in the meantime neither 
seen nor learned anything in relation to these plows to 
cause him to change a single idea expressed in the report. 

"According to previous notice, there were assembled at London, 
Madison county, 0., a large concourse of persons, chiefly farmers, 
to witness the trial of reapers, mowers, and mole plows or ditching 
machines. It may not Le generally known that within the past 
twelve months there have been five patents obtained on mole plows, 
by persons in Madison county. Each one of these plows has special 
merits, and the agricultural community in that county manifested 
considerable anxiety to learn, by means of a trial, the comparative 
merit of each. The entries and description of these plows were as 
follows : 



AVitherow & 

Co., 
A. Defen- 

baugh, 

— Bales, 
Cole & Wall, 
Marquis, 



tri 


ri 


« 




o 


tr< 






n 


a 


ft 




p 


< 






TO 


05 






s 


■2 






^ 


a 


o- 


Diameter 


o 


O 


Adjusta- 


Cost. 


a 
3 




'^ 


Mole. 


3 


3 


bility. 






=P 


5' 


inches. 


? 


» 






16 


5 


8 


5 x6K 


16 


16K 


good. 


$100 


15 


5 


9 


5%x7% 


15 


16% 


good. 




184K 


7 


5 s7 


16 


l&K 






16 5 


8x6 


4 x5 \ 

5 x8 J 


18 


18J^ 


not good. 


110 


164K 


8x6 


5 x7 


18 


isy^ 


not good. 





Draft. 



300 double cord. 

225 single " 

250 single " 

300 double " 

250 single " 

325 double " 

250 single " 

300 double " 

225 single " 

300 double " 



" There being great uniformity in the operation and draft of the 
plows, the committee found it impossible to take the working quali- 



THE MOLE PLOW. 243 

ties as a basis of the award, and therefore took into account cost, 
adjustability, and the shape of the mole. The adjustability of the 
Witherow plow, being very convenient in operation, and so gradu- 
ated that the operator can know at all times the precise depth (by 
means of a graduated scale) at which the ditch is being made, to- 
gether with the cost of the plow, determined the committee to award 
it the first premium. The mole of this plow is an angular ovoid, six 
and a half inches high, five in horizontal diameter, running down to 
a flat base of about two inches. The mole might be considerably 
improved in form. 

" The Defenbaugh machine is adjusted with regard to depth by a 
windlass, attached in the rear of the cutter, or colter, by which a 
change of eighteen inches may be made in the depth of the ditch, 
but the operator has no means of knowing precisely at what depth 
he ia cutting. The form of the mole is that of an ellipse, with a flat 
base, from the center of which proceeds a sharp fin, downward, an 
inch or more. Upon the whole, the mole is rather better than that 
of the Witherow plow. 

" The Bales plow is not without merit. On the trial he used the 
capstan of the Witherow machine. The adjustability is more diffi- 
cult than in either of the preceding ones, while the mole is cer 
tainly the most objectionable. The mole is seven inches in perpen- 
dicular diameter, and five in horizontal. It is well known that a 
small quantity of flowing water requires a very limited channel. 
The mole of this plow presents the same sized channel to a small, 
that it does to a large quantity of water. When water has a wider 
channel than absolutely necessary, it forms a zigzag course, and de- 
posits whatever foreign matters, such as sand, roots of vegetables, 
etc., it may bring with it, at the curves it has made in its course, and 
in a short time, comparatively, fills up from this cause. But if the 
channel is so constructed that a small quantity of water has a very 
narrow channel, and a larger quantity of water a wider channel, 
the probability is that the channel will be kept clear a much longer 
period than where a uniformly wide channel is prepared for all 
stages of water. 

" Although the Cole & Wall plow is defective in being readil} 
adjusted to different depths, yet, in the opinion of the chairman of 
the committee, the mole was certainly the best shaped of any pre- 
sented for competition. Its form is ovoid, and has a fin four inches 
in depth, extending from the base downward; this fin ia about half 
an inch thick, and makes a deep incision in the earth, in the bottom 



244 LAND DRAINAGE. 

of the drain, thus making a very narrow channel for the water when 
at a low stage. When operating, two moles are attached ; the first 
one measures four by five inches, while the second one is five by 
eight inches. It is claimed that the second mole, being a short dis- 
tance behind the first one, and being three more inches in perpen- 
dicular diameter, completely closes the incision made by the colter, 
and thus prevents the drain from filling by substances foiling in 
from above, more effectually than the others. On account of the 
superiority of the mole, the committee awarded to this plow the 
second premium. 

"The Marquis, or Illinois mole plow, is one among the earliest 
patented in this country. On the trial, it was operated by the Cole 
& Wall capstan. It is defective in adjustability to different depths, 
and the shape of the mole was, by the committee, considered to be 
not superior in form to that of the Bales plow, although evidently 
more durable in structure, yet objectionable because it makes a 
drain with a flat bottom of five inches in width. 

" Each plow was furnished with one hundred feet of two-inch 
cable, and each drained or ditched at about the depth of three feet, 
or forty inches. The length of drain which each is capable of mak- 
ing per day is about the same. The character of the land on which 
the trial was made, may be said to consist of a stiff clay subsoil, 
and a rather stiff loamy clay soil. With a good team, any one of 
these plows can ditch from seventy-five to a hundred rods per day, 
in the kind of soil in which the trial was made. 

" The committee desire it to be distinctly understood that they do 
not consider these mole plows to be of any considerable utility in 
any other than level, or very slightly undulating clay lands. For 
sandy loams, or gravelly soils, or very undulating lands, they can not 
commend them. In such lands, the only method of securing the 
advantages of underdraining, is to employ drain pipe tiles. 

" The mole plow is useful, inasmuch as it helps to demonstrate 
the benefits of thorough draining more promptly than it could other- 
wise be done, although this has never been found the best method 
of making drains. The fact that work done in this manner is never 
permanent, and that mole plows are adapted to use on a part only 
of the lands needing drainage,, has always prevented their coming 
into general use, while tile draining has the advantage of being 
suited to lands of every character, whatever the nature of the soil 
or surface, and the further advantage of being permanent, and in 
most cases actually cheaper than any other method." 



THE MOLE PLOW. 245 

We will conclude this notice of the mole plows with the 
following; communication to the Oliio Farmer, from the 
pen of James M. Trimble, of Hillsboro, Highland county, 
Ohio. Mr. Trimble is engaged in farming on an exten- 
sive scale, and is well and favorably known to the Ohio 
agricultural community : 

"Spending some six or eight days on my farm in Fayette, wliile 
looking over the farm accounts, I was reminded of my promise made, 
to give you the result of our ditching and underdraining operations 
for the year 1860. I have with some care taken from the diary of 
the farm the ditching and underdraining account. The present ac- 
count includes the work of 1858 and 1859, which I gave you last 
year. The creek runs north and southerly across the farm; the work 
has been confined to the prairie land west of the creek. The open 
ditches contain in all 2,041 rods, varying from 3^ to 6 feet in depth, 
and cut at a cost of $910. The land next to, and adjoining the 
creeks, for some 30 to 50 rods, is from two to five feet higher than it 
is from 100 to 200 rods west, which required the outlets or open 
ditches to be some three to five feet deeper across this elevation than 
those are from 100 to 200 rods west of the creek. 

" The drains were put in at from three feet to three feet six inches 
deep, which received the working of the mole at a sufficient depth 
in the clay subsoil to make the drains more permanent and lasting. 
The total amount of underdrains put in is 4,560 rods, at a cost of 
$190, making the entire cost of open and underdrains $1,100, from 
which, deducting $536, expended in 1858 and 1859, leaves $564, ex- 
pended in 1860. Most of the open ditches cut during the last year, 
were made with the plow and scraper. They are not only a cheaper 
but a better ditch than those cut with a spade, the dirt being re- 
moved so far from the bank as to prevent its washing or falling into 
the ditch. The fall in the drains and open ditches is barely suffi- 
cient to carry off the water. In time of high water, the creek 
leaches up some of the open ditches a distance of 200 rods. The 
underdrains were laid so as to receive a regular fall of about one 
inch to 500 feet, which J think a decided advantage in mole drains, 
as it secures them permanently from any current or wash, in throw- 
ing off the surplus water. 

"The land, Avith the exception of an occasional grove of timber 
was broken up, planted, and loeU cultivated in corn this year, with 



246 LAND DRAINAGE. 

the exception of sixty acres of prairie sod, broken late ; it was 
planted in corn with Barnhill's drill, thinned out, but not cultivated. 

" Although not accurately measured with compass and chain, yet 
we have so far measured the ground as to satisfy us, that, excluding 
groves, we had 400 acres in corn, 200 acres of which have been cut 
up and put in shock. Of that left standing, we have husked and 
fed at the rate of 100 bushels per day, for the last sixty days, and 
have husked out a number of fallen shocks of that shocked up. 
From the amount husked out, we have no doubt that the entire crop 
of 400 acres will average over 66 bushels per acre. My son and Mr. 
Jere Shelton, who have charge of the work and farming the land, 
concur in the opinion that fifteen bushels of corn per acre is but a 
fair estimate for the excess in yield, on account of underdrains. 
I would put it at twenty; but taking their estimate, the ac- 
count will stand thus: Farm Dr. to open and underdrains, $1,100; 
Cr. by extra yield of crop, 15 bushels per acre on 400 acres, which 
is 6,000 bushels of corn, at 25 cents per bushel, makes $1,500, from 
which deduct $564, cost of open and underdrains for 1860, and you 
have $936 as the profit for 1860. 

" Now, this looks like extravagant work on paper, and the question 
might be asked if llf i-ods of underdrain, and some two rods of 
open ditch per acre (about one half of the open ditch, extending 
over 900 acres of land), at a cost of $2 per acre, or less, well give 
these results, what will thorough drainage do? To this 1 would 
reply, judging from the corn, directly over and within six to eight 
feet of the underdrains, and comparing it with that beyond the influ- 
ence of the drains, 1 would put the crop at 100 bushels in lieu of 66 
bushels. 

" As to the question of durability of mole drains (a very important 
item in their economy), I can only say, from present indications, 
my better impression is, that they may last ten or more years, and 
that they will last Jive years, 1 have no doubt. 

"The fall rains have started the most of my underdraining; they 
are throwing off small streams of water, as freely as they did last 
spring; if there is a single defective drain on the farm, lam not 
aware of it. Last spring, in constructing new drains, it became 
necessary to connect with those made a year previous. In digging 
down to, and boxing up these connections, we found the original 
drain sound and perfect in every instance. I have no fears of my 
drains crumbling in, caving in, or filling up, at least for many years 
to come. Most of the defective mole drains that I have seen or 



THE MOLE PLOW. 247 

heard of, cave in from the top of the ground to the bottom of the 
drain, or they fill up. This is owing to two causes : First, too much 
fall has been given to the drain, and the seam or aperture made by 
the cutter bar is not permanently closed at the top of the drain, 
either of which is fatal to a mole drain. Second, the grade of the 
drain should be regular, and not run so as to make a syphon; lead 
pipes or tile may answer in such drains; without either the one or the 
other, the drains will fill up. A mole drain, with a regular, gradual 
fall of one inch to 1,000 feet, is abundantly better than one with 
irregular falls and rises, as the inequalities of the ground happen 
to be, with a fall of three feet in 1,000. 

" In the construction of mole drains, my experience has taught 
me that the great trouble and danger is in the top, the arch and roof of 
the drain, and not in the bottom, as some suppose. The last ditcher 
(Emmerson's patent), the mole has been improved — as I think, very 
much improved in form and shape. The bottom is hollowed out 
more ; the sides are rounded from the bottom to the apex of the cone 
of the mole, so as to throw the pressure equal from the side and bot- 
tom of the drain to the cone or arch, and the nub on the end of the 
mole, back of the cutter, is elevated some three inches above the 
level of the mole, which effectually closes the aperture made by the 
cutter, making it as solid and permanent as any other portion of the 
drain. My examinations in digging down to, and cutting away the 
arch, or the roof of the drain, has satisfied me that nine tenths of 
all the water going into the drains, enters at the bottom of the drain, 
and not through the roof and sides ; they are more impervious to 
water than tile. From the best information 1 can get, there are at 
this time not less than 200 miles of mole drain in Fayette and Clin- 
ton counties, put in within the past two years, and at an average 
cost not to exceed five cents per rod (when the owners of the land 
put it in) ; in some cases, by contract, ten and fifteen cents per rod 
was charged. The drains, so far as I can learn, have very generally 
given satisfaction. 

" 1 may have been tedious in this statement, if so, my apology is 
in the importance of the subject of underdraining our lands, and 
the economy in the use of the mole plow in preference to tile or 
stone." 

Mr. J. C. Miller, of Union county, Ohio, is the inven- 
tor of a traction engine, propelled or operated by horse 
power, to which is attached a mole plow, that opens the 



248 LAND DRAINAGE. 

channel and cements it as it progresses, by letting down 
a cement ready made of water lime through a flat tube in 
the rear of the cutter or colter, directly upon the rear 
of the mole, and which is pressed into shape by a wooden 
mole trowel following. 

For ourself we have no confidence in this matter of 
cement, for the reason that none of the arches break 
down from above, but where the arches do fall in, the sides 
and bottom wash so as to let down the top, and the same 
causes operating will cause the cemented arch to fall. In 
making the drain with the mole plow, the top and portions 
of the sides become very hardly packed ; in fact, so much 
so as almost to exclude water, and the coat of cement 
will give it no additional support. A sufficient amount of 
cement we do not think could be introduced to make a 
substantial arch for a loamy soil. 

In addition to the kinds already described, there are 
yet, aside from pipe tile and stone drains, those described 
in British works under the head of Bog drains and Sheep 
drains. Having never witnessed any of these kinds of 
drains, and being doubtful whether any exist in the United 
States, we copy the following description and figures from 
3Io7'ton's Cyclopoidia of Agriculture: 

SHEEP DRAINS. 

"In forming sheep drains, the main drains should be first opened 
in the most suitable phices, and the minor drains then led into them. 
In peaty or boggy places, the workman first proceeds to mark out, 
on both sides of the drain, with a strong and heavy edging-tool. 
This tool should be edged with steel, and have a ci'oss handle, which 
the workman can seize with both hands. This is the tool we have 
found all workmen to prefer ; for by simply raising it a foot or so 
above the surface, and causing it to descend with sudden force, it 
cuts through the tough, wiry stems of heath, or other obstacles, and 
at once makes a cut of considerable depth into the sod also. When 
the line of drain is thus marked out, the workman proceeds to divide 



SUEEP DKAINS. 249 

the sod which he has separated, into convenient lengths, by trans- 
verse cuts with the same tool; and these he drags out and deposits 
on the lower side of the line of drains, by means of a light drag, 
placing the grassy side undermost. The drain is afterward deep- 
ened, and finished off with a common spade; the soil or peat dug 
out is placed upon and behind the sods already removed, after which, 
a blow or two from the spade gives a finish to the bank and com- 
pletes the operation, giving the trench and bank the form repre- 
sented in the following cut. In places where the surface is not of 
a boggy nature, the common spade must take the place of the edging- 
tool and drao;. 




Fig. 26. — Sheep Drain. 

^'' Bog Draining, — In draining deep bogs, the removal of water 
causes a great alteration in the hight of the surface of the bog, 
which rapidly sinks as the drying process goes on. This constant 
alteration of the level, and the soft nature of bogs, render the use 
of heavy materials, for forming drains in them, improper. Where 
the bog does not exceed six or eight feet in depth, the best plan is to 
cut quite through it, to the bed of solid material on which it rests, 
and then to form drains of some of the more permanent materials ; 
but when the bog is so deep as to render this plan impracticable, 
the proper course to pursue is to divide it into brakes, by means of 
large, open ditches, into which the subsidiary drains are made to 
empty. The subsidiary drains may be formed somewhat in the 
manner of the shoulder drain. They must be made at least eighteen 
inches wide, and the turf first taken out is to be laid on one side, to 
be used for forming the roof of the drains. The trench should not 
be taken out the full depth of the drain at once, but should be left 
unfinished for a few months, in order that the bog may subside. 
Before the autumnal rains commence, the drains should be finished, 
by paring down their sides in a perpendicular direction, to within a 



250 LAND DRAINAGE. 

foot of the depth they are intended to be made. The bottom spit is 
then taken out, precisely as in the case of the shoulder drain in 
grass lands, except that it must be wider, to allow for the sides 
coming somewhat together, owing to the soft nature of the bog. 
When the trench is neatly and properly finished, the turf first re- 
moved is to be retui'ned into the drain, which it should just fit. The 
surface portion should be placed undermost, resting upon the shoul- 
ders ; the rest of the trench should then be filled up with the remain- 
der of the peat which had been removed. If proper care is exer- 
cised in cutting the drain, the pieces may be made to fit neatly 
into the trench again, forming a very complete and efficient drain. 
" In bog draining, a conduit has been employed, formed of peat, 
somewhat in the form of a pipe in two halves, Fig. 27. These pipes 
are formed at once in the bog, by means of a peculiar kind of tool, 
invented by Mr. Calderwood. If properly dried, they are very dur- 
able, and can be formed at a very low price, as an expert workman 
can turn out two or three thousand a day, when the peat is of suit- 
able description. From their lightness, they answer well in bog 
draining, and it has been attempted to introduce them into draining 
operations in arable land; but the low price at which tiles can now 
be made, almost at any place, renders such a practice very question- 
able economy." 

These, then, are the principal kinds 

^"jv rj-m%i| of drains in which the conduit ia 
I composed solely of the materials of 

, y the ground in which they are formed. 

1 The cost of a permanent drain now 

Fio. 27.— Peat Tiles. go little exceeds even the cheapest 

of those described, that special and weighty reasons alone can jus- 
tify the employment of any other. We shall now consider the more 
durable forms of drains. 

STONE DRAINS. 

Every portion of the country appears to be abundantly 
supplied with materials of some description for draining. 
Where timber is scarce, stone is abundant; or, if both are 
tvanting, then there generally is an excellent deposit of 
clay, from which tile may be manufactured. It is an es- 
tablished fact, that underdraining will pay all reasonable 
expenses incurred in its construction in the course of three 



STONE DRAINS. 251 

or four years, and not unfrequently the first year alone, 
by the increased productiveness. It therefore behooves 
the farmer to consider well what kind of drains his pres- 
ent means will justify hira in making. The digging and 
filling the drains will cost about the same for any kind, 
except tile — the difi"erence in cost, then, will depend upon 
the material employed. If stones are to bo hauled two 
or three miles, then, perhaps, wooden drains, as already 
described, would be cheaper, and will answer the purpose 
for some five or six years — at the end of which time the 
farmer will be enabled to redrain, and in a more thorough 
manner. But, if stones are abundant on the field to be 
underdrained, or in the adjoining fields, it would, perhaps, 
be a matter of economy to employ the stone, for two rea- 
sons : first^ stone will make a drain which will secure the 
object intended; and second, the surface of fields will be 
cleared of a great nuisance and hindrance to a more per- 
fect system of culture. 

Stone drains never should be dug less than three feet 
deep, and one foot wide on the bottom. Stone should be 
filled in to the depth of one foot, at least, and then be 
covered with brush, straw, leaves, sod with the grassy side 
down, or some such material, so as to prevent the dirt 
from falling in and filling up the interstices. 

Wliat hind of stone shall he emploi/ed, and how should 
they he placed in the drain? — In many places persons 
would, perhaps, be obliged to use the rounded little bowl- 
ders, found in the beds of streams, or stones of this char- 
acter which are found on the surface of fields. Flat 
stones, or fragmentary ones from quarries, are not always 
accessible or within a proper distance. Where the rounded 
bowlders are employed, many persons are of opinion that 
the manner in which they are laid in the drain is a matter 
of no consequence whatever, and, to use their expression, 




252 LAND DRAINAGE, 

they "just throw them in ' higglety-pigglety,' " feeling cer- 
tain that there will at best be ample space for the water to 
pass through. A drain of this description is represented in 
Fig. 28. It must be obvious to every one that where the 
drain is filled with stones, Avithout 
any regard to forming a continuous 
channel for the water, fine dirt Avill 
be carried down from the sides, or 
from the stones themselves, and in a 
very short time the interstices in the 
bottom layer will be found to be com- 
pletely filled up, and, as a matter of 
course, rendered entirely useless. 
\ ^ ^ ^ ' Layer after layer will, year after 
"''m'0M^' year, be filled up, until the drain is 

FiQ. 2s— Drains filled rendered valueless in the last de- 

WITH SMALL STONES. A 1 , ; 1 1 f • l 

gree. A better method or usmg the 
bowlders is described by C. G. Calkins, of Ashtabula, 0. 

" Some four years since, an old countryman in my employ informed 
me that he could lay an effectual ' pipe ' of small stones regularly 
in three courses, one on each side, and one on the ' shoulders ' of 
these, forming the top. The top course must be laid so as to wedge 
between the others, to keep them apart, and must be covered with 
turf, straw, or something to keep the earth from filling in, until an 
enduring crust is formed. We tried 'taking up' a water vein, in a 
hillside, running along nearly on a level, and forming numerous 
springs. There is a strata of quicksand, in or at the bottom of which 
the stones were laid. The trench was dug from two to four feet 
deep, and no wider at the bottom than was necessary to receive the 
' pipe ' — say one foot. It was filled rather imperfectly, being on a 
steep bank, where tilling could not be done. It was fully success- 
ful — intercepting all the springs, emptying them in a single and con- 
stant stream at the mouth of the drain, and continues as good as at 
first. 

" The amount of stones required in a drain of this kind is not 
large, and an experienced hand will lay 30 or 40 rods in a day. 



STONE DRAINS. 253 

" Some days after a light rain, and when all around is dry, this 
drain is seen discharging water, though dug in a ridge of the hardest 
clay soil. 

"it will avail little to express my faith in the utility or practica- 
bility of this or any other mode of underdraining, so long as that 
faith is not followed by ' works ' more extended. It, however, appears 
providential that, in a region almost destitute of stone, these little 
bowlders should appear so well dispersed, and at the same time so 
iitted to this important use — draining the soil they now incumber. 
However, I am of the opinion that if the manufacture of draining 
tiles was commenced, there would soon be a good demand for them, 
as being the most convenient and suitable. 

" In building a fence on the side of the garden, we dug a trench 
some two and a half feet deep, set the posts on the bottom, and tilled 
around them Avith loose stones to the top of the ground, then filled 
the spaces between with stones thrown in at random, mainly to the 
depth of a foot or more, and, after covering with turf, filled up with 
dirt. This has been a good and useful piece of work, for, beside 
draining the land, it preserves the fence from the action of frost, 
and in a measure from decay." 

In commenting on this statement of Mr. Calkins, the 
editor of the Country Gentleman says : 

"We have practiced this mode for many years, before the intro- 
duction of tile. When stones are on the ground and abundant, they 
maybe used to advantage. The objections to their use are two: 
first, the earth is liable to work down among the stones, or ' cave in,' 
where streams run across the surface in heavy rains or in thaws, and 
find their way down through the soil ; second, the increased labor 
of digging a drain wide enough to lay the stones well, will pay for 
tile, if not very remote from a tile manufiictory. 

"The mode of laying must vary with the soil. Those soils which 
approach quicksands in character, render it almost impossible to use 
stone successfully. When they are saturated with water, they will 
find their v/ay among the stones through every avenue — at the top, 
bottom and sides. It is rare that such drains endure many season.? 
uninjured. The best security for them is to lay, first, Hat stones on 
the bottom (or hard, durable boards or slabs), to pi'cvent the cobble 
stones from sinking into the earth; to use as small stones as practi- 
cable against the sides of the ditch, so that the interstices there may 
be too small for the soil easily to enter; and to cover the top with 



254 LAND DRAINAGE. 

very small stone, and then very coarse gravel, or with flat stone, for 
the same object, before the straw or inverted sods preceding the 
earth covering are applied. In stiff or clayey soils, the earth rarely 
falls among the stones, even when little precaution is taken. After 
practicing underdraining with stone on such lands for many years 
with entire success, we had occasion to adopt the same mode in an- 
other district of country, where the soil was light and much more 
sandy. The first spring destroyed the value of most of them by the 
caving in of the soil, and this evil was only prevented effectually, by 
covering the stone filling either with flat stones, gravel, or hardwood 
slabs, before applying the earth at the top. 

" As a general rule, we would not recommend the use of cobble 
stone, except in soils of considerable tenacity. 

" The importance of a good drain under every post fence, is not 
generally understood, and we are glad to see the subject alluded to 
by our correspondent. Wherever post holes retain water, they are 
sure to be heaved by frost, and the fence thrown out of shape ; 
and the posts can not last long, where they are alternately subjected 
to Avater soaking and drying. But if all the water which falls, passes 
immediately down into the ditch, it can not lie in contact with the 
posts long enough to soak them, and as a consequence, they must 
remain perpetually dry, and last for a long period. Robert B. How-' 
land, of Union Springs, New York, who has used Pratt's ditcher 
with success, found it cheaper to cut ditch with this machine, 
in which to set the posts for a fence, than simply to dig the post 
holes by hand, and he thus attained all the advantages of drainage, 
beside a practice well worth copying. 

"A single suggestion on the efficacy of underdraining, on lands 
that do not at all appear to need it. It is a very good rule for detei-- 
mining its necessity, to observe whether water will stand in holes 
dug two or three feet, for this purpose. If the subsoil is porous, 
the water will immediately sink away, and ditches would be wholly 
useless. But if water will stand forty-eight hours in the holes, 
draining is necessary to relieve the subsoil of this cold and chilling 
mass which fills it. 

" Now, if the surplus water in the soil and subsoil, at the wettest 
period, is only equal to a depth of two inches, then for a ten acre 
field it would amount to more then seven ihotisand hogsheads. Sup- 
pose, therefore, that this field has a slope, so as to give it what many 
would suppose a natural drainage — 'not needing any ditching' — 
' dry enough already ' — then, in getting rid of these seven thousand 



STONE DRAINS. 255 

hogsheads of hurtful water, it must, every gill of it, soak, drop 
by drop, from one particle of earth to another, until it all passes 
slowly down, almost imperceptibly, from one side of the field to the 
other. No wonder that days, and even weeks, are required to com- 
plete the process, and to render the land dry enough to become fri- 
able and fit to receive seed, and promote the extension of the young 
roots of crops. No, give this field a smooth, tubular channel of tile, 
for every two roads of its whole surface, the shortest way down the 
slope ; the water in the soil then has only about one rod to soak 
through the soil before reaching one of these drains, and most of it 
much less than a rod. When it reaches them, it shoots rapidly down 
the smooth descending tube, and in a few minutes has passed the 
boundary of the field, instead of being otherwise compelled to soak 
its weary way the whole forty or fifty rods, or entire breadth of the 
field. This rapid discharge reduces the soil to dryness in so short 
a time, as to surprise those who have never before Avitnessed it, and 
to lead to the common supposition that the simple statement of the 
practical advantages of thorough underdraining, by those who have 
given it a trial, are wild exaggerations." 

Where flat stones can readily be procured — in places 
■where bowlder or cobble stone abound — a combination of 
the two will make the best drain. 

The most common way, and usually the best, for fill- 
ing stone drains, where the stone are nearly round, is 
made by just laying a row of small stones on each side 
of the bottom, leaving an open channel between them 
about three inches wide, and then covering this channel 
with flat stones, and filling the ditch with small ones promis- 
cuously thrown in, to within about 15 or 18 inches of the 
surface, so as to be below the reach of the plow — and the 
remainder with earth. It is hardly necessary to remark 
that the upper surface of the stone must be either cov- 
ered with coarse gravel or small flat stone, and then with 
straw or inverted sods, to exclude the earth from the 
stones; and if the soil is nearly free from clay, more care 
in this respect will be needful — and perhaps a covering 
of hardwood slabs will be necessary to keep the earth in 



256 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



its place. If the bottom of the drain inclines to quick- 
sand, a layer of flat stones must be first laid on the bot- 
tom. We mention this common mode of constructing 
stone drains, in order to show the superiority of the fiat 
stones spoken of by our correspondent. The chief objection 
to the mode just described, is the necessity of cutting a ditch 
nearly a foot wide at the bottom, to allow laying the channel. 
The fiat stones, when they can be procured in any quantity, 
on the contrary, obviate the labor of cutting a wide ditch ; 
the channel being constructed by plac- 
ing three fiat stones together, as 
shown in Fig. 29. The bottom of 
the ditch is cut with a pointed spade, 
so as to have an angular trough ; flat 
stones and then selected, all of the 
same width, and fitted into and meet- 
ing each other at the bottom, and 
then covered by a third fiat stone, 
reaching across them. The ditch 
above this is partly filled with irregu- 
FiG. 29.— The Triangu- lar fragments of stone, and covered 

LAR Stone Duct, i i i -u i 

as already described. 

A still better way, where the earth is hard and the 
quantity of water not large, is as follows: The ditch is 
cut with the narrowest kind of spade — a mode familiar to 
English ditchers, and which they execute with great ex- 
pedition. Flat stone, without regard to their exact width, 
are placed against the sides, open at the top. Into this 
opening, one or more thicker fiat stones are thrust, as 
represented in the cut, and the drain then filled as before 
mentioned. The advantage of this mode is in obviating 
the necessity of selecting the stones, as almost any width 
will answer. 

The last two modes, if well made, will last as long as 




STONE DRAINS. 257 

tile drains ; as the earth can not fall into them from the 
sides, nor rise from the bottom, even if of a quicksand 
nature ; and in the last described, the stones being 
mostly vertical, admit the free descent of the water from 
above. ^ 

A correspondent of the Country Gentleman, writing 
from Monroe county, N. Y., says: 

" I have made several hundred rods, and make more or less every 
year, and have made at all seasons of the year. The best time is in 
the spring, as soon as the ground is settled, especially vrhere there 
is hard-pan, as that then vrorks the easiest. My mode is to com- 
mence with team and plow — cut two furrows, one from the other — 
then put the plow in the center, and cut deep as I can — then shovel 
out and dig from three to five feet deep, and even more where I cross 
ridges — the bottom ten inches wide. In filling, I take flat stone and 
set them on the edge on the outer side of the ditch, and let the tops 
come together, forming A — fiil in with small stones up to within eigh- 
teen inches of the top or surface. Then take litter or straw and cover 
the stone lightly, and then take the plow and fill up rounding, as it 
will settle more or less. Some of mine have paid expenses the first 
crop. I have drains that were made in 1838, and answer their pur- 
pose well yet." 

But this method of underdraining ^# 
with stone, will be very much improved 
by laying a flat stone in the bottom of 
the drain, as represented in Fig. 30. 

Mr. L. Griswold, of Litchfield, Con- 
necticut, says : 

" This last fall I have drained four acres of 
my eight acre meadow, in this way, viz : We lay 
out the short drains forty feet apart — though 
we vary from this rule some ; when it comes 
near a wet hollow we go through that — we cut Fto. 30.— The CorpLEo 
them three and a half feet deep, two feet wide 
at the top, and slant down to six inches on the bottom. We scrape 

1 J. J. Thomas, in Rural Register. 

23 




258 LAND DEAINAGE. 

the mud from the bottom perfectly clean, so that it is hard, like rock. 
This thoroughly done, we begin to fill with small round stone, tak- 
ing care that no one stone is large enough to reach across, for the 
first layer, and so on five or six inches ; then the cobble and broken 
stones may be thrown in with less care, extending up to a hight of 
eighteen inches ; the little slivers from the broken stone, and such 
like, we scatter alone on the top to fill up the cavities ; then place 
inverted turf on snugly, and press it down with our feet. The dirt 
dug from the ditch is then filled in, and it is finished. 

" The whole cost is about sixty cents per rod, including drawing 
the stone, which pays by getting them out of the way. I am well 
convinced that these drains will continue to act well, and I can not 
see why stone is not quite as good, if not better than tile, and it 
costs something less here." 

Almost anywhere in Ohio, the best of tile drains can 
be made at a considerably less expense than sixty cents 
per rod; whatever merit may attach to Mr. Griswold's 
method, there will be one insuperable objection to it in 
the West, on account of the cost. 

-^^^i^ -'"■ ■'--'-- jjj locations where the clay is some- 
^^ ' what destitute of the quality of stiff- 

^ ness, and is inclined to crumble, it may 

be advantageous to protect the sides, 
: as in the drain represented by Fig. 31. 

This drain is made by laying a flat 
stone across the entire bottom ; then 
a flat stone against each side, and an- 
other covering the last two — the cov- 
''^^■^■■-- ^ ^^ v--^ ering stone should, if practicable, be as 
Fig. 31. -^yi^ie as the ditch. Rough boards, or 

" slabs'' from the sawmill will ansAver an excellent purpose 
as covers. 

Considerable draining with stone has been done in Ohio, 
from a belief that it was cheaper and more permanent than 
almost any other kind of drain. Farmers generally have 
teams of their own; and there often occur "odd half 



STONE DRAINS. 259 

days," or times when the team and hands, according to 
their system of farming, could not be profitably employed, 
and they say that during such times stones may be gath- 
ered, drawn to the proper field and distributed along the 
line of the contemplated drains ; and in this way the stones 
are place in readiness on the ground at no cost, or at most 
a comparatively small cost. This may be true in certain 
cases, but surely no man would undertake to drain his 
neighbor's field, and gather, draw and distribute the stones 
as mere pastime ; and in estimating the cost of drains, no 
item should be omitted, however trifling. A man pur- 
chases a farm in the wilderness, and during the " odd half 
days," gets out, and draws together, the timber for a new 
house — in the estimate of the cost of the house would this 
form no item of expense ? " Time is money" and the 
time expended in preparatory measures is just so much 
money expended — that farmer has certainly not adopted 
the best system of farming, who can command sufficient 
leisure to gather, draw, and distribute stone for drains, 
without regarding it as an important item in the cost of 
drains. 

Hon. John Howell, of Clark county, Ohio, has upward 
of a thousand rods of stone drains on his farm. They 
are 28 to 30 inches deep, and filled to the depth of 10 
to 12 inches with stone. The stone were brought a dis- 
tance of one and an eighth mile. The cost of the drains 
Avas 47 cents per rod, exclusive of the boarding furnished 
the hands. 

Drawing and distributing stone, - - - - 27 cents per rod. 

Digging and filling drains, 10 " " " 

Laying stone in drains, 10 " *' " 

Total cost, - ... 47 " " » 
Mr. Howell assured us that tile drains — the tile being 



2G0 LAND DRAINAGE. 

furnished at a manufactory within the country — would have 
cost, completed, 32 cents per rod only, instead of 47, as the 
stone drains did. In f^ict, he says the cost should be put 
down at 30 cents, because he filled the drains mainly by 
plowing the ground in that was dug out, and he has not 
taken the cost of plowing into account. 

The subjoined experience of the editor of the JV. E. 
Fariner, may be of much value to those who are hesitat- 
ing between two opinions, or which to choose, stone or 
tile : 

"We have plenty of stones for the purpose of drainage, and have 
constructed many drains of them, in both dry and sandy loams. 
They oj^erated well for a time, but the first star mole that made his 
way to one of them left an inviting opening for the next drenching 
shower to follow. This, of course, was repeated a good many times 
and in a good many places during the year, and the work of destruc- 
tion was begun. Unless laid very deep, the frost also deranges the 
upper portion of them, and lets the fine soil down. We have, there- 
fore, great doubt whether it is not best to use tile in the first in- 
stance. It costs much less to lay tile than stone, and where the 
work is once done, and the tile entirely below the frost, a drain ia 
made of great permanence and utility." 

In some places stone drains are 
made by placing a flat stone on the 
bottom, then one on the side, and a 
third one in a diagonal direction from 
the bottom, as represented in Fig. 
32. This is called an Irish drain. 
They are filled either with cobble or 
small stones, 10 or 12 inches deep, 
like the other stone drains, or else 
>!• / may be filled entirely with the mate- 

rial which was thrown out in making 
^^«- •''2- the ditch. 

Irish Deain, 

Stone drains made according to any of the systems 




TILE DRAINS. 261 

described are peculiarly liable to be obstructed, because 
there is no regular water-way, and the flow of the water 
must, of course, be very slow, impeded as it is by fric- 
tion at all points with the irregular surfaces. 

Sand, and other obstructing substances, which find their 
way, more or less, into all drains, are deposited among 
the stones — the water having no force of current suffi- 
cient to carry them forward — and the drain is soon filled 
up at some point, and ruined. 

Miles of such drains have been laid on many New 
England farms, at shoal depths, of two or two and a half 
feet, and have in a few years failed. For a time, their 
effect, to those unaccustomed to underdrainage, seems 
almost miraculous. The wet field becomes dry, the wild 
grass gives place to clover and herdsgrass, and the experi- 
ment is pronounced successful. After a few years, how- 
ever, the wild grass re-appears, the water again stands on 
the surface, and it is ascertained, on examination, that 
the drain is in some place packed solid with earth, and is 
filled with stagnant water. 

The fault is by no means wholly in the material. In 
clay or hard-pan, such a drain may be made durable, 
with proper care, but it must be laid deep enough to be 
beyond the effect of the treading of cattle and of loaded 
teams, and the common action of frost. ^ 

Tn-E DRAINS. 

We liave alreacfy alluded to the fact^ that pipe tile was 
in use, as conduits for underground ducts or causeways, 
in France, as early as the year 1600. From some cause, 
which we have failed to discover, in our agricultural lite- 
rary researches, they were discontinued ; and it is exceed- 
ingly doubtful if they Avere used in England previous to 

1 French's Farm Draiiiarjc. 2 Ante, page 7. 



262 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



the present century. In Elkington's treatise on land 
draining, edited by Johnstone, and first published in Lon- 
don, in May, 1797, are described " draining bricks." On 
page 41 we find : " When flat stones can be got, they are 
preferable to brick ; but there are several kinds of brick, 
beside the common sort, invented and used solely for the 
purpose of draining, in several parts of England, where 
the expense of stone would become greater. Of these, 
the figures in the annexed plate are some of the best 
kinds. When small drains are wanted, and when the 
water is to be conveyed to a house, etc., Fig. 33, is 




2Jn. G]n. 

Fio. 35. Fig. 33. 

commonly made use of. For larger drains, Figs. 34 and 
35 are well adapted, especially. Fig. 35, lately invented 
by Mr. Couchman, of Bosworth Temple, in Wjirwickshire, 
and with Avhich Mr. Elkington has lafd se^^eral drains. 
They are laid single, without one reverf^.ed under, for 
when that is done, the water running on the under one, 
occasions a kind of sludge, which in tiiL.e becomes so in- 
crusted on it, as totally to obstruct the passage of the 
water, and render the work useless in a few years. In 
clay bottoms, they may be laid single, or without anything 
under ; but in soft, sandy bottoms, a common building 



TILE DRAINS. 268 

brick should be laid under each side, to prevent them 
from sinking down, and should be so laid as to form a 
regular arch (^. e., the side bricks laid with an equal 
hight), the better to support the pressure above from 
breaking them or causing them to slip." 

The brick represented by Figs. 33 and 35, were called 
soughing brick. That part of a drain forming the conduit 
for water, was termed the ^^ sough" or ^^siirf," and as 
these brick formed a conduit, they were accordingly 
termed "soughing brick." The only ones we ever saw 
were on the farm of Norton S. Townshend (formerly Pres- 
ident of the Ohio State Board of Agriculture), in Lorain 
county, Ohio. That pattern of soughing brick represented 
by Fig. 35, had a series of ^^ egelet" holes, as they were 
termed, on the upper portion of the brick, in order to 
afford a means of ingress for the water to get into the 
drain. 

It is, perhaps, unnecessary to mention, that these brick 
or tile are made of clay, sun-dried, and burned the same 
as other bi'ick. The drain brick represented by Figs. 
33-4-5, have long since been entirely abandoned by per- 
sons draining on a large scale. For a long time, the 
^'••horseshoe" tile was more in use than any other (See 

Fig. 36). These tiles 
were made by hand ; 

r. o. TT rp r .• ^, r the clay was "rolled" 

Fig. 36. — nonsESHOE Tilf [restiug on a Solo of •' 

Tile or Boanii. out, somcwhat after 

the fashion that housewives roll out dough, and then were 
pressed by hand over a cylindrical substance, and set away 
to dry. Of course, they were expensive ; at present, they 
are made by machines. Many very excellent drainers in 
Ohio and New York, are partial to the horseshoe tile, 
because less care is required in laying them. We regret 
to state, that a very large proportion of tile, used at pres- 



264 LAND DRAINAGE, 

ent, are of this form — a form Avhich we have long since 
considered almost the worst possible, and have not hesi- 
tated to express this opinion on all occasions — in news- 
paper articles, in lectures, and in ordinary conversation. 
We had not read Gisborne's Essays on Agriculture^ until 
December, 1860, and therefore could not have been influ- 
enced in our opinion by his Avritings, but had based our 
opinion upon our knowledge of hydraulics and hydro- 
statics. But as Gisborne presents the views entertained 
by us, in this respect, based upon experience and obser- 
vation, we prefer to quote his language : 

" We shall shock some and surprise many of our readers, when we 
state confidently that, in average soils, and, still more, in those which 
are inclined to be tender, horseshoe tiles form the weakest and most 
failing conduit which has ever been used for a deep drain. It is so, 
however; and a little thought, even if we had no experience, will 
tell us that it must be so. A doggerel song, quite destitute of hu- 
mor, informs us that tiles of this sort were used in 1760, at Grandes- 
burg Hall, in Suffolk, by Mr. Charles Lawrence, the owner of the 
estate. The earliest of which we had experience were of large area 
and of weak form. Constant failures resulted from their use, and 
the cause was investigated; many of the tiles were found to be 
choked up with clay, and many to be broken longitudinally through 
the crown. For the first evil, two remedies were adopted ; a sole of 
slate, of wood, or of its own material, was sometimes placed under 
the tile, but the more usual practice was to form them with club-feet. 
To meet the case of longitudinal fracture, the tiles were reduced in 
size, and very much thickened in proportion to their area. The first 
of these remedies was founded on an entirely mistaken, and the sec-" 
ond on no conception at all of the cause of the evil to which they 
were re.spectively applied. The idea was, that this tile, standing on 
narrow feet, and pressed by the weight of the refilled soil, sank into 
the floor of the drain ; whereas, in fact, the floor of the drain rose 
into the tile. Anyone at all conversant with collieries is aware that 
when a strait work (which is a small subterranean tunnel six feet 
high and four feet wide, or thereabout) is driven in coal, the rising 
of the floor is a more usual and far more inconvenient occurrence 
than the falling of the roof: the weight of the two sides squeezes up 



TILE DRAINS. 265 

the floor. AVe have seen it formed into a very decided arch without 
fracture. Exactly a similar operation takes place in the drain. ISO 
one had till recently dreamed of forming a tile drain, the bottom of 
'which a man was not to approach personally within twenty inches 
or two feet. To no one had it then occurred that width at the bot- 
tom of a drain was a great evil. For the convenience of the operator 
the drain Avas formed with nearly perpendicular sides, of a width in 
which he could stand and work conveniently, shovel the bottom level 
with his ordinary spade, and lay the tiles by his hand; the result 
was a drain with nearly perpendicular sides, and a wide bottom. 
No sort of clay, particularly when softened by water standing on it 
or running over it, could fail to rise under such circumstances ; and 
the deeper the drain the greater the pressure and the more certain 
the rising. A horseshoe tile, which may be a tolerably secure con- 
duit in a drain of two feet, in one of four feet becomes an almost 
certain failure. As to the longitudinal fracture — not only is the tile 
subject to be broken by one of those slips which are so troublesome 
in deep draining, and to Avhich the lightly-filled material, even when 
the drain is (Completed, oflers an imperfect resistance, but the con- 
stant pressure together of the sides, even when it does not produce 
a fracture of the soil, catches hold of the feet of the tile, and breaks 
it through the crown. Consider the case of a drain formed in clay 
when dry, the conduit a horseshoe tile. When the clay expands with 
moisture, it necessarily presses on the tile, and breaks it through the 
crown, its weakest part.^ When the Regent's Park was first drained, 
large conduits were in fashion, and they were made circular by 
placing one horseshoe tile upon another. It would be diflicult to 
invent a weaker conduit. On re-drainage, innumerable instances 
were found in which the upper tile was broken through the crown, 
and had dropped into the lower. Next came the Q form, tile and 
sole in one, Fig. 37, and much reduced in size — a great advance ; 




Fig. 37.— Horseshoe Tile and Sole in one. 

and when some skillful operator had laid this tile bottom upward, 
we were evidently on the eve of pipes. For the Q tile a round pipe 

1 The tile has been said, by great authorities, to be broken by contraction, 
under some idea that the clay envelopes the tile and presses it when it con- 
tracts. That is nonsense. The contraction would liberate the tile. Drive 

.24 



266 LAND DRAINAGE. 

molded with a flat bottomed solid sole 0_ is now generally substi- 
tuted, and is an improvement; but is not equal to pipes and collars, 
nor generally cheaper than they are. 

" Almost forty years ago, small pipes for land drainage were used 
concurrently by the following parties, who still had no knowledge 
of each other's operations : — Sir T. Wichcote, of Asgarby, Lincoln- 
shire (these, we believe, were socket-pipes) — Mr. R. Harvey, at Ep- 
ping — Mr. Boulton, at Great Tew, in Oxfordshire (these were porce- 
lain 1-inch pipes, made by Wedgwood, at Etruria) — and Mr. John 
Read, at Horsemonden, in Kent. Most of these pipes were made 
with eyelet-holes, to admit the water. Pipes for thorough draining 
were incidentally mentioned in the Journal of the Agricultural So- 
ciety for May, 1843; but they excited no general attention till they 
were exhibited by John Read (the inventor of the stomach-pump), 
at the Agricultural Show at Derby in that year. A medal was 
awarded to the exhibitor. Mr. Parkea was one of the judges, and 
brought the pipes to the special notice of the Council, and was in- 
structed by them to investigate their use and merits. From this 
moment inventions and improvements huddle in upon us faster than 
we can describe them. Collars to connect the pipes, a new form of 
drain, tools of new forms — particularly one by which the pipe and 
collar are laid with wonderful rapidity and precision, by an ope- 
rator who stands on the top of the drain — and pipe-and-collar-mak- 
ing machines (stimulated by repeated prizes offered by the Royal 
Agricultural Society), which furnish those articles on a scale of 
unexampled cheapness. For all these inventions and adaptations 
■we are mainly indebted to Mr. Parkes. The economical result is, 
a drain 4 feet 6 inches deep, excavated and refilled at from l^d. to 
2d. per yard — the workmen earning 12s. and upward per week ; and 
333J yards of collared IHnch pipes for 18s. — being 12s. per thou- 
sand for the pipes, and 6s. per thousand for the collars ; larger sizes 
at a proportionate advance. We shall best exemplify the improve- 
ments to our readers by describing the drain. It is wrought in the 
shape of a wedge, brought in at the bottom to the narrowest limit 
which will admit the collar by tools admirably adapted to that pur- 
pose. The foot of the operator is never within 20 inches of the floor 

a stake into wet clay ; and when the clay is dry, observe whether it clips 
the stake tighter or has released it, and you will no longer have any doubt 
Avhether expansion or contraction breaks the tile. Shrink is a better word 
than contract. 



TILE DRAINS. 267 

of the drain ; his tools are made of iron plated on steel, and never 
lose their sharpness, even when worn to the stumps ; because, as the 
softer material, the iron, wears away,* the sharp steel edge is alwaj'S 
prominent. The sloping sides of the drain are self-sustaining, and 
the pressure on its floor is reduced to a minimum ; the circular form 
of the pipe and collar, see Fig. 38, enables them to sustain any pres- 



FiG. 3S. — Pipe .vnd Collar. 

sure to which they can be subjected; the adaptation of the bed ia 
which they lie, to their size, prevents their wriggling. They form a 
continuous conduit, and whose continuity can not be broken except 
by great violence. However steep the drain, the water running in 
the pipe can never wash up its floor. They off"er almost insuperable 
impediments to the entrance of vermin, roots,^ or anything except 

1 I am afraid that I must materially modify this expression, as far as 
roots are concerned. The words, " almost insuperable impediments," are 
not applicable. My own experience, as to roots, in connection with deep 
pipe draining, is as follows : — I have never known roots to obstruct a pipe 
through which there was not a perennial stream. The flow of water in 
summer and early autumn appears to furnish the attraction. I have never 
discovered that the roots of any esculent vegetable have obstructed a pipe. 
The trees which, by my own personal observation, I have found to be most 
dangerous, have been red willow, black Italian poplar, alder, ash, and 
broad-leaved elm. I have many alders in close contiguity with important 
drains, and, though I have never convicted one, I can not doubt that they 
are dangerous. Oak, and black and white thorns, I have not detected, nor 
do I suspect them. The guilty trees have in every instance been young and 
free growing; I have never convicted an adult. These remarks apply 
solely to my own observation, and may of course be much extended by that 
of other agriculturists, I know an instance in which a perennial spring of 
very pure and (I believe) soft water is conveyed in socket pipes to a paper 
mill. Every junction of two pipes is carefully fortified with cement. The 
only object of cover being protection from superficial injury and from frost, 
the pipes are laid not far below the sod. Year by year these pipes are 
stopped by roots. Trees are very capricious in this matter. I was told by 
the late Sir R. Peel, that he sacrificed two young elm trees in the park at 
Drayton Manor to a drain which had been repeatedly stopped by roots. 
The stoppage was nevertheless repeated, and was then traced to an elm tree 
far more distant than those which had been sacrificed. Early in the au- 
tum of 1850 I completed the drainage of the upper part of a boggy valley, 



268 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



water, and they are more portable both to the field and in the field 
than any other conduit previously discovered : cheap, light, handy, 
secure, efficacious." 

The ordinary form of pipe tile is represented by Fig. 
39, but all tile having a tubular form, like those of Fig. 40, 
41, are called pipe tile. 



Fig. 39.— Pipe Tile. 



Fig. 40.— Pipe Tile. 





Fig. 41. — Octoq.\nal Pipe Tile. 



We presume we shall be obliged to rest content with 



lying, with ramifications, at the foot of marly banks. The main drains 
converge to a common outlet, to which are brought one 3-inch pipe and three 
of 4 inches each. They lie side by side, and water flows perennially through 
each of them. Near to this outlet did grow a red willow. In February, 
1852, I found the water breaking out to the surface of the ground about 10 
yards above the outlet, and was at no loss for the cause, as the roots of the 
red willow showed themselves at the orifice of the 3-inch and of two of the 
4-inch pipes. On examination I found that a root had entered a joint be- 
tween two 3-inch pipes, and had traveled 5 yards to the mouth of the drain, 
and 9 yards up the stream, forming a continuous length of 14 yards. The 
root which first entered had attained about the size of a lady's little finger; 
and its ramifications consisted of very fine and almost silky fibers, and 
would have cut up into half a dozen comfortable boas. The drain was 
completely stopped. The pipes were not in any degree displaced. Roots 
from the same willow had passed over the 3-inch pipes, and had entered 
and entirely stopped the first 4-inch drain, and had partially stopped the 
second. At the distance of about fifty yards a black Italian poplar, which 
stood on a bank over a 4-inch drain, had completely stopped it with a 
bunch of roots. The %vhole of this had been the work of less than 18 
months, including the depth of two winters. A 3-inch branch of the same 



TILE DRAINS. 269 

the pipe tile for some years to come, but we do not con- 
sider them the " hight of perfection," although they are 
a very decided improvement on the horseshoe tile. A 
better form, in our opinion, is that of which an end view 
or section is represented by an egg, with the small end 
down. A conduit of this shape affords a very narrow 
channel, when a small quantity of water only is to be dis- 
charged; but as the quantity of water increases the chan- 
nel increases also. We are well aware that some may 
deem this a matter of very small importance, if indeed it 
be worthy of consideration at all. The importance in the 
form of the conduit can not be better' illustrated than by 
citing well known facts. 

It must be self-evident, and therefore requires no argu- 
ment to prove, that a body of water confined in a channel 
one inch high, and one inch wide, will pass off more rap- 
idly than if spread over a surface eight inches wide and 
one eighth of an inch high. In the former case the water 
will move rapidly, and carry with it all the particles of 
sand, clay and other impurities which may find their way 
into the conduit, while in the latter case the resisting 
power of the current would not be sufficient to remove 
them, and they would form a nucleus for a permanent 
stoppage of the water. 

The California gold diggers at first employed the ordin- 
ary "box," or "square" form, for a conduit to carry 
off the water during the process of washing gold ; this 
conduit became clogged daily, and much time was spent 
in keeping the channel open. One of the miners con- 
system runs through a little group of black poplars. This drain conveys a 
full stream in plashes of wet, and some water generally through the winter 
months, but has not a perennial flow. I have perceived no indication that 
roots have interfered with this drain. I draw no general conclusions from 
these few facts, but they may assist those who have more extensive experi- 
ence in drawing some, which may be of use to drainers. — T. Q. 



270 LAND DRAINAGE. 

structed a conduit of two boards, placed together in 
this shape V, which required no cleansing or further care 
and never became clogged or choked. Instead then of 
having the widest of the conduit at the bottom, as in the 
case of the horseshoe tile, the very narrowest possible 
should form the base, and for this reason, if none other, 
pipe tile are to be preferred to the horseshoe. 

Pipe tile are more readily laid in the drain than any 
other kind, for the reason that all tiles are more or less 
warped in drying and burning, and where it is desired to 
made perfect work, there is no " wrong-side-up" to them; 
they can be turned with any side up, so as to make not 
only better joints, but a straighter run for water — which is 
very important. 

The best authorities on the subject differ Avidely with 
respect to the importance of collars to connect the pipes 
in the drains; and as we do not think that they will be 
used to any extent in the country — at least for some years 
to come — we will refer our readers to several English au- 
thorities for views on this subject. Mr. Gisborne says : 

" We were astounded to find, at the conclusion of Mr. Parkes, 
Newcastle Lecture, this sentence: 'It may be advisable for me to 
say, that in clays, and other clean-cutting and firm-bottomed soils, I 
do not find the collars to be indispensably necessary ; although I 
always prefer their use.' This is a barefaced treachery to pipes : an 
abandonment of the strongest point in their case — the assured con- 
tinuity of the conduit. Every one may see how very small a dis- 
turbance at their point of junction would dissociate two pipes of one 
inch diameter. One finds a soft place in the bottom of the drain, 
and dips his nose into it one inch deep, and cocks up his other end. 
By this simple operation the continuity of the conduit is twice 
broken. An inch of lateral motion produces the same eflfect. Pipes 
of a larger diameter than two inches are generally laid without col- 
ars ; this is a practice on which we do not look with much compla- 
cency ; it is the compromise between cost and security, to which the 
affairs of men are so often compelled. No doubt a conduit from 



TILE DRAINS. 271 

three to six inches in diameter is much less subject to a breach ia 
its continuity than one which is smaller ; but when no collars are 
used, the pipes should be laid Avith extreme care, and the bed which 
is prepared for them at the bottom of the drain should be worked to 
their size and shape with great accuracy. 

"To one advantage which is derived from the use of collars we 
have not yet adverted — the increased facility with which free water 
existing in the soil can find entrance into the conduit. The collar 
for a Ij inch pipe has a circumference of three inches. The whole 
space between the collar and the pipe on each side of the collar is 
open, and affords no resistance to the entrance of the water ; while 
at the same time the superincumbent arch of the collar protects the 
junction of two pipes from the intrusion of particles of soil. We 
confess to some original misgivings that a pipe resting only on an 
inch at each end, and lying hollow, might prove weak, and liable to 
fracture by weight pressing on it from above ; but the fear was illu" 
gory. Hmall particles of soil trickle down the sides of every drain, 
and the first flow of water will deposit them in the vacant space be- 
tween the two collars. The bottom, if at all soft, will also swell up 
into any vacancy. Practically, if you re-open a drain well laid with 
pipes and collars, you will find them reposing in a beautiful nidus, 
which, when they are carefully removed, looks exactly as if it had 
been molded for them. 

Mr. Denton says : 

" The use of collars is by no means general, although those who 
have used them speak highly of their advantages. Except in sandy 
soils, and in those that are subject to sudden alteration of character, 
in some of the deposits of red sandstones, and in the clayey sub- 
soils of the Bagshot sand district, for instance, collars are not found 
to be essential to good drainage. In the north of England they are 
used but seldom, and, in my opinion, much less than they ought to 
be ; but this opinion, it is right to state, is opposed, in numerous in- 
stances of successful drainage, by men of extensive practice; and 
as every cause of increased outlay is to be avoided, the value of 
collars, as general appliances, remains an open question. In all the 
more porous subsoils, in which collars have- been used, the more 
successful drainers increase the size of the pipes in the minor drains 
to a minimum size of two inches bore." 



CHAPTER II. 



SIZE OF TILE, ETC. 

The size of tile to be employed in underdraining de- 
pends upon, 1, the amount of fall ; 2, the length of the 
drain ; 3, the distance between the drains ; 4, the depth 
of the drains. 

It is very evident that the greater the amount of fall, 
the smaller the conduit may be ; and the converse of this 
proposition is equally true, viz. : that the less the amount 
of fall, the larger the pipe must be. Actual experiment 
has demonstrated that if a drain of 100 feet in length, 
having eight feet fall, is laid with pipe having a caliber or 
capacity of IJ inches, will in 24 hours drain the same 
quantity of water that 2 inch pipes, having a fall of 2 
feet 3 inches, will drain in the same period, or a 3 inch 
pipe having a fall of only 6 inches, or a 4 inch pipe hav- 
a fall of less than 3 inches. Hence the size of the tile 
is determined by the amount of fall. 

Again, it may be necessary to discharge 50,000 gallons 
of water in 24 hours, where only two feet fall in 100 feet 
in length can be had ; a 3 inch tile with one foot fall will 
effect this, but if 2 inch tile were employed, it Avould re- 
quire a fall of 4 feet 6 inches. Hence the length of the 
drain, or what is the same thing in effect, the amount of 
water to be discharged, governs the size of the pipe. 

If 50,000 gallons are discharged by each of the two 
drains, A and B (Fig. 42), 100 feet apart, it is evident 
that if a third drain, C, were placed between them so as 
to make the distance between the drains 50 feet, then each 
drain would discharge 33,333 gallons. But if two more 
(272) 



SIZE OF TILE. 
D C ■ E 



273 



25 


25 


25 


25 

i 



60 



50 



100 
Fig. 42. 

drains, D and E, are placed between A and C, and C and 
B, then the distance between the drains will be 25 feet, 
and the amount discharged by each drain will be 20,000 
gallons only. 

If, then, the drains are made 25 feet apart, 2 inch tile, 
with a fall of 9 inches in 100 feet will drain off as much 
water as A, B and C would with the same sized tile, hav- 
ing a fall of two feet, or 3 inch tile, having a fall of five 
inches. Or if the two drains, A and B, only are em- 
ployed, then if laid with 2 inch tile, they must have a fall 
of four feet six inches ; with 3 inch tile a fiill of about 
one foot ; or a fall of five inches if 4 inch tile are em- 
ployed. Hence the distance between the drains deter- 
mines the size of the pipes. 

From these propositions it is very evident that the 
depth of the drains exerts a controling influence on the 
size of the pipes. 

Suppose the drain 7, 5, in Fig. 5, page 99, were placed 
no deeper than the point indicated 8, it is very evident 
that in such case it would have less than half the amount 
of water to drain that it has at 7. 

As the entire eflBciency of drains depends upon a cor- 
rect understanding and compliance with the principles in- 



.274 LAND DRAINAGE. 

volved in the four propositions stated at the commence- 
ment of this chapter, we shall dwell at some length upon 
them. 

Stone drains require more fall than tile drains, on ac- 
count of the friction, or the retardation water meets in 
passing through angular crevices. Friction must not be 
omitted in our calculations of fall and capacity. Where 
water can flow in a straight direction in a smooth and 
regular channel, much more water can be discharged in a 
given time than where the angles and curves occur in the 
direction ; and where the surface is smooth, the flow is 
more rapid than where it must pass through a channel full 
of rough points or inequalities. 

In some recent English experiments " it was found that 
with pipes of the same diameter, exactitude of form was 
of more importance than smoothness of surface ; that 
glass pipes, which had a wavy surface, discharged less 
water, at the same inclinations, than StaiFordshire stone- 
ware clay pipes, which were of perfectly exact construc- 
tion. By passing pipes of the same clay — the common 
red clay — under a second pressure, obtained by a machine 
at an extra expense of about 18 pence per 1000, while 
the pipe was half dry, very superior exactitude of form 
was obtained, and by means of this exactitude, and with 
nearly the same diameters, an increased discharge of water 
of one fourth was eifected within the same time." 

" On a large scale, it was found that when equal quan- 
tities of water were running direct, at a rate of ninety 
seconds, with a turn at right angles, the discharge was 
effected in one hundred and forty seconds ; while, with a 
turn or junction with a gentle curve, the discharge was 
effected in one hundred seconds." 



CALIBER, ETC., OF DRAIN PIPE TILE. 275 

CALIBER AND MINIMUM FALL OF DRAIN PIPE TILE. 

Vincent, an English writer, has adopted Eytelwein's 
formula, 






. 50 d h 
G. ' 



1 -{■ f)^ dh 



in the computation of the minimum fall and caliber of the 
pipe tile. In this formula, c = velocity of current per 
second, d = diameter, or caliber of pipe, and h = the fall 
in 1 foot, as data from which to determine the velocity of 
the water in a pipe of a given diameter, and certain fall. 
He determined from this formula, by an inverse process, 
the requisite caliber of the pipe tile d, for a given distance 
or length of drain — assuming six inches per second to be 
the minimum velocity of water discharged from an acre. 
The calculations in question were, however, based on hy- 
pothetic values only ; because the co-efficient, 50, occur- 
ring in the formula, refers, originally, to metal tubes or 
pipes ; and there was no data at hand for that of clay or 
earthenware pipes. Owing to the great importance of 
having the pipe tile of proper caliber, John, Waege, and 
v. Mollendorf,' made a series of experiments. 

For this purpose they laid a number of drain tile in a 
trough making a slight angle with the horizon, and se- 
cured the joints by moist clay. Water was then let into 
the pipe from a reservoir, and the time occupied in flow- 
ing through the pipes in seconds and the quantity dis- 
charged in cubic feet was very carefully observed and 
recorded. 

The data obtained from repeated observations, with 
given lengths of pipe and various degrees of inclination 

' These experiments are quoted in detail in Zeiiachrift fur Deutsche Drain 
inmg, 1855, pp. 79 and 106 ; also, in Dwfjler'a Poli/iechnische Journal, 138 
257. 



27.G 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



or fall, and various capacities or diameters of pipe — and 
notwithstanding that the extremes of twenty-two experi- 
ments varied about 40 per cent, sufficient data was ob- 
tained to change the co-efficient 50, and to make the fol- 
lowing as nearer the truth, viz. : 



= 6.42 "V 



46.5 d h 
1 -IS^fdli 

If we adopt Vincent's data, and assume that the velo- 
city of water, in pipe tile, amounts to 6 inches per sec- 
ond, as a minimum, in order to secure the pipes from being 
filled by detritus, or particles of earth entering them and 
being deposited by gravity overcoming velocity, then the 
following will be the minimum fall (by Vincent's formula) 
for drains of 120 feet in length. 

For drains with tile of 1 inch caliber, 2.33 inches fall, (4.8) 



n 




1.88 




1* 




1.58 




2 




1.20 


(2.4) 


3 




0.82 


(1.8) 


4 




0.63 


(10) 


5 




0.52 


(0.7) 


6 




0.44 




7 




0.39 




8 




0.35 


(0.5) 



The figures in parentheses are those adopted by Vincent. 
It must be remembered, however, that these figures are 
applicable only to such drains as are as good and as. care- 
fully laid pipes as those in the experiment. 

In calculating the capacity of drain pipe tile, two other 
contingencies must be taken into account, namely : the 
quantity of water to he discharged, and the distance between 
the drains. Upon the supposition that well-arranged 
drains must discharge the rainfall of a month in fourteen 
days (assuming 4 inches as the maximum), Vincent has 



CALIBER, ETC., OF DRAIN PIPE TILE. 277 

fixed the amount discharged per second, from an acre, at 
0.00625 cubic feet. 

In the course of several articles in Zeitschrift fur 
Deutsche Drainirung, John has compared the replies of 
several writers to the question, " What is the capacity of 
pipe tile of a given caliber ?" Schbnermark, the practical 
draining engineer of the Duchy of Brunswick,^ has com- 
municated some calculations upon this same subject, and, 
as the principles assumed by him do not vary materially 
from those of the other authors, and furthermore, as the 
measures employed by him are purely Brunswickian, and 
therefore can not well be compared with those of John, 
without being reduced to Prussian (almost American) 
measure, reference must be made by those interested to 
the " Zeitung " itself. 

The quantity of water discharged per acre, per second, 
has been fixed at 

0.0095 cubic feet by Stephens and Leclerc, 

0.0095 " " " Vincent, 

0.00289 " » " Stocken, 

0.00276 " " " f Waege and 1 for heavy soil. 

0.00376 " " " U. Mollendorfi " light soil. 

0.00426 " " " Schonermark. 

Stephens and Leclerc have assumed that a heavy rain- 
fall, in a day, will amount to 0.382 inches, and that this 
amount is to be removed by the drains in 24 hours ; the 
amount evaporated is not to be taken into account. 

Stocken assumes that, after deducting 20 per cent, for 
evaporation, that the drains will discharge the remaining 
80 per cent, of the maximum of eight days of winter rains 
(which in that latitude would average IJ inches for that 
period) in 9 days. 

Waege and v. Mollendorf, as Avell as Vincent, assume 

' Agronomische Zeitung, 1855, page 360. 



278 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



that the drains will discharge the rainfiills of autumn, 
winter and spring in an aggregate of 14 days, after de- 
ducting for evaporation. They, together with Dickinson, 
have assumed the evaporation for clay to heavy loam soil, 
to be 45 per cent., and for a lighter loam to be 25 per 
cent, of the entire rainfall. 

Schbnermark's calculation is based on the following 
data : the maximum monthly rain for Brunswick is 4 
inches (Brunswick measure) ; this quantity may fall in 8 
days ; consequently, | inch in one day — this latter quantity 
the drains are to discharge in 48 hours, after deducting 
25 per cent, for evaporation. 

From the data just given, the comparative capacity of 
one inch and three inch pipe tile, to carry off a given 
rainfall, is determined to be as follows, by the various 
experimenters : 



» 


Fall of 3 6-10 inches in 120 ft. 




Inch tile. 


Three inch tile. 


Stephens & Le Clerc, - - - - 
Vincent, ----- 
Stocken, - - - - - " 
V. Mollendorfl heavy soil, 
and Waege J light " - 


0.33 acre. 
0.40 " 

0.98 " 
0.86 " 
0.64 " 


7 acres. 
15 " 
13.4 " 

9.8 " 



The experiments demonstrate that, for Ohio or the 
Middle and Western states generally, one inch tile is 
entirely too small, while three inch tile is perhaps larger 
than necessary, especially when it is considered that two 
inch tile will answer the purpose and cost a great deal 
less. Alderman Mechi says: "I seldom use any larger 
than one inch bore, except for large springs. I am prac- 
tically convinced they are as large as are required. We 
make some sad mistakes as to water : a rope of water one 
inch thick, spread eight inches wide, forms a broad-look- 
ing stream one eighth of an inch thick. It is perfectly 



CALIBER, ETC., OF DRAIN PIPE TILE. 279 

ludicrous to see immense six, nine, and twelve inch bore 
pipes put, in many cases, to carry an insignificant stream 
that would fold up into a one, two, or three inch coil. 
We must bear in mind that a two inch pipe Avill carry as 
much as four one inch ; a three inch is equal to nine one 
inch." 

Presuming that the alderman is correct for England, 
where there is an average rainfall of twenty-three inches, 
should we not have at least two inch pipe in Ohio, where 
the average rainfall is nearly forty-six inches, or double 
that of England? One and a half inch pipe would be 
just the proportion, according to the rainfall ; but then 
we must remember that in England it is a perfect drizzle 
from January until December, Avhile here we sometimes 
have forty days of drought, and then a rainfall of two 
inches per day ! 

Judge French obtained from Messrs. Shedd & Edson, 
of Boston, the following valuable tables, showing the ca- 
pacity of water pipes, with the accompanying sugges- 
tions : 

DISCHARGK OP WATER THROUGH DRAINS. 

" The following tables of discharge are founded on the experi- 
ments made by Mr. Smeaton, and have been compared with those 
by Henry Law, and with the rules of Weisbach and D'Aubuisson. 
The conditions under which such experiments are made, may be so 
essentially different in each case, that few experiments give results 
coincident with each other, or Avith the deductions of theory ; and 
in applying these tables to practice, it is quite likely that the dis- 
charge of a pipe of a certain area, at a certain inclination, may be 
quite unlike the discharge found to be due to those conditions by 
this table, and that difference may be owing partly to greater or less 
roughness on the inside of the pipe, unequal flow of water through 
the joints into the pipe, crookedness of the pipes, want of accuracy 
in their being placed, so that the fall may not be uniform through- 
out, or the ends of the pipes may be shoved a little to one side, so 
that the continuity of the channel is partially broken ; and, indeed, 
from various other causes, all of which may occur in any practical 



280 LAND DRAINAGE. 

case, unless great care is taken to avoid it, and some of which may 
occur in almost any case. 

" We have endeavored to so construct the tables that, in the ordi- 
nary practice of draining, the discharge given may approximate to 
the truth for a vrell laid drain, subject even to considerable friction. 
The experiments of Mr. Smeaton, which we have adopted as the 
basis of these tables, gave a less quantity discharged, under certain 
conditions, than given under similar conditions by other tables. 
This result is probably due to a greater amount of friction in the 
pipes used by Smeaton. The curves of friction resemble, very 
nearly, parabolic curves, but are not quite so sharp near the origin. 

" We propose, during the coming season, to institute some careful 
experiments, to ascertain the friction due to our own drain pipe. 
Water can get into the drain pipe very freely at the joints, as may 
be seen by a simple calculation. It is impossible to place the ends 
so closely together, in laying, as to make a tight joint, on account 
of roughness in the clay, twisting in burning, etc.; and the opening 
thus made will usually average about one tenth of an inch on the 
whole circumference, which is, on the inside of a two inch pipe, six 
inches — making six tenths of a square inch opening for the entrance 
of water at each joint. 

" In a lateral drain 200 feet long, the pipes being thirteen inches 
long, there will be 184 joints, each joint having an opening of six 
tenth square inch area; in 184 joints there is an aggregate area 
of no square inches; the area of the opening at the end of a two 
inch pipe is about three inches; 110 squai-e inches inlet to three 
inches outlet; thirty-seven times as much water can flow in as can 
flow out. There is, then, no need for the water to go through the 
pores of the pipe ; and the fact is, we think, quite fortunate, for the 
passage of water through the pores Avould in no case be sufficient to 
benefit the land to much extent. We tried an experiment, by stop- 
ping one end of an ordinary drain pipe and filling it with water. 
At the end of sixty-five hours, water still stood in the pipe three 
fourths of an inch deep. About half the water first put into the 
pipe had run out at the end of twenty-four hours. If the pipe was 
stopped at both ends, and plunged four feet deep in water, it would 
undoubtedly fill in a short time ; but such a test is an unfair one, 
for no drain could be doing service, over which water would collect 
to the depth of four feet." 



DISCHARGE OF WATER THROUGH PIPES. 



281 



1}4 INCH DRAIN PIPE. 
Area: 1.76709 inches. 



Fall in 


Velocity 


Discharge 


Fall in 


"Velocitv 


Discharge 


100 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


100 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


ft. in. 


in feet. 


in 2i hours. 


ft. in. 


in feet. 


in 24: liours. 


.3 


.71 


5630.87 


5.3 


3.75 


29704.51 


.6 


1.04 


8248.03 


5.6 


3.84 


30454.28 


.9 


1.29 


10230.73 


5.9 


3.93 


31168.06 


1. 


1.52 


12054.81 


6. 


4. 


31723.21 


1.3 


1.74 


13799.59 


6.3 


4.10 


32516.36 


1.6 


1.91 


15147.83 


6.6 


4.18 


33150.76 


1.9 


2.10 


16654.68 


6.9 


4.25 


33705.91 


2. 


2.26 


17923.61 


7. 


4.33 


34340.38 


2.3 


2.41 


19113.23 


7.3 


4.41 


34974.85 


2.6 


2.56 


20302.86 


7.6 


4.49 


35609.30 


2.9 


2.69 


21333.86 


7.9 


4.56 


36154.45 


3. 


2.83 


22444.17 


8. 


4.65 


36878.23 


3.3 


2.94 


23150.71 


8.3 


4.71 


373.54.08 


3.6 


3.06 


24268.25 


8.6 


4.79 


37988.55 


3.9 


3.16 


25061.34 


8.9 


4.85 


38464.40 


4. 


3.28 


26013.03 


9. 


4.91 


38940.25 


4.3 


3.38 


26806.11 


9.3 


4.98 


39495.39 


4.6 


3.46 


27440.58 


9.6 


5.04 


39971.24 


4.9 


3.56 


28233.66 


9.9 


5.10 


40447.10 


5. 


3.65 


28947.43 


10. 


5.16 


40922.93 



2 INCH DRAIN PIPE. 



Fall in 


Velocity 


Discharge 


Fall in 


Velocity 


Discharge 


100 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


100 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


ft. in. 


in feet. 


in 24 hours. 


ft. in. 


in feet. 


in 21 liours. 


.3 


.79 


10575.4 


5.3 


4.11 


55018.9 


.6 


1.16 


15528.4 


5.6 


4.22 


66491.5 


.9 


1.50 


20079.9 


5.9 


4.31 


67696.3 


1. 


1.71 


22891.1 


6. 


4.40 


58901.1 


1.3 


1.94 


25970. 


6.3 


4.49 


60105.9 


1.6 


2.16 


28915.1 


6.6 


4.58 


61309.7 


1.9 


2.35 


31458.5 


6.9 


4.66 


62381.6 


2. 


2.53 


33868.1 


7- 


4.74 


63452.5 


2.3 


2.69 


36009.9 


7.3 


4.83 


64667.3 


2.6 


2.83 


37884. 


7.6 


4.91 


65728.3 


2.9 


2.97 


39758.2 


7.9 


4.99 


66799.2 


3. 


3.11 


41632.4 


8. 


5.07 


67870.1 


3.3 


3.24 


43372.6 


8.3 


5.15 


68941. 


3.6 


3.36 


44979. 


8.6 


5.23 


70011.9 


3.9 


3.4g 


46585.4 


8.9 


5.31 


71082.8 


4. 


3.59 


48057.9 


9. 


5.38 


72019.9 


4.3 


3.70 


49530.6 


9.3 


5.46 


73090.9 


4.6 


3.80 


50869.1 


9.6 


5.53 


74027.9 


4.9 


3.91 


52341.6 


9.9 


5.60 


74965. 


5. 


4.02 


53814.1 


10. 


5.67 


76902. 



25 



282 



LAND DRAINAGE. 
3 INCH DRAIN PIPE. 



Fall in 


Velocity 


Dischnrge 


Fall in 


Velocity 


Discharge 


100 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


100 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


ft. in. 


in feet. 


in 2-1 hours. 


ft. in. 


in feet. 


in 21 hours. 


.3 


.90 


24687.2 


5.3 


4.57 


125356.2 


.6 


1.33 


36482.2 


5.6 


4.68 


128373.5 


.9 


1.66 


45534.2 


5.9 


4.78 


131116.6 


1. 


1.94 


53214.7 


6. 


4.89 


134133.9 


1.3 


2.19 


60072.2 


6.3 


4.98 


136602.6 


1.6 


2.43 


66655.5 


6.6 


5.08 


139315.6 


1.9 


2.63 


72141.5 


6.9 


5.18 


142088.7 


2. 


2.83 


77627.6 


7. 


5.27 


144557.4 


2.3 


3. 


82290.7 


7.3 


5.37 


147306.4 


2.6 


3.16 


86679.6 


7.6 


5.46 


150069.1 


2.9 


3.31 


90794.1 


7.9 


5.55 


152237.8 


3. 


3.47 


95182.9 


8. 


6.64 


154706.6 


3.3 


3.60 


98748.9 


8.3 


5.73 


157175.3 


3.6 


3.74 


102689.1 


8.6 


5.82 


159644.0 


3.9 


3.87 


106155. 


8.9 


6.91 


162112.7 


4. 


3.99 


109446.7 


9. 


6.99 


164313.2 


4.3 


4.11 


112738.3 


9.3 


6.07 


166501.6 


4.6 


4.23 


116029.9 


9.6 


6.16 


168970.3 


4.9 


4.34 


119047.3 


9.9 


6.24 


171164.7 


5. 


4.46 


122338.9 


10. 


6.32 


173359.1 



4 INCH DRAIN PIPE. 



Fall in 


Velocity 


Discharge 


Fall in 


Velocity 


Discharge 


100 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


100 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


ft. in. 


in feet. 


in 24 hours. 


ft. in. 


in feet. 


in 24 hours. 


.3 


1.08 


43697.6 


5.3 


4.86 


196639.4 


.6 


1.50 


60691.2 


5.6 


4.97 


201090.1 


.9 


1.83 


74043.2 


5.9 


5.09 


205945.3 


1. 


2.13 


86181.4 


6. 


6.20 


210396. 


1.3 


2.38 


96296.6 


6.3 


5.30 


214442.1 


1.6 


2.61 


105602.6 


6.6 


5.41 


218892.8 


1.9 


2.81 


113694.8 


6.9 


5.51 


222938.3 


2, 


3. 


121382.3 


7. 


5.61 


226984.9 


2.3 


3.19 


129089.9 


7.3 


5.71 


231031. 


2.6 


3.36 


135948.2 


7.6 


5.81 


235077.1 


2.9 


3.53 


142826.5 


7.9 


5.91 


239123.2 


3. 


3.68 


148895.7 


8. 


6.01 


243169.2 


3.3 


3.82 


154560.2 


8.3 


6.10 


246810.7 


3.6 


3.96 


160224.7 


8.6 


6.19 


250452.2 


3.9 


4.10 


165889.2 


8.9 


6.28 


253193.7 


4. 


4.24 


171553.7 


9. 


6.37 


257735.2 


4.3 


4.87 


176813.6 


9.3 


6.45 


260971.9 


4.6 


4.50 


182073.5 


9.6 


6.54 


264603.1 


4.9 


4.62 


186928.3 


9.9 


6.63 


268254.9 


5. 


4.75 


192188.7 


10. 


6.71 


271491.8 



DISCHARGE OF WATER THROUGH PIPES. 283 

5 INCH DRAIN PIPE. 



Fall in 


Velocity 


Discharge 


Fall in 


Velocity 


Discharge 


100 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


1(10 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


ft. in. 


in feet. 


in 24 hours. 


ft. in. 


in feet. 


in 24 hours. 


.3 


1.13 


95841.:^ 


5.3 


5.02 


442401.3 


.6 


1.57 


138362 V 


5.6 


5.14 


452976.6 


.9 


1.90 


16 7442. » 


5.9 


5.25 


462670.6 


1. 


2.20 


193881. 


6. 


5.37 


473246. 


1.3 


2.45 


215912.9 


6.3 


5.49 


483820.4 


1.6 


2.70 


237944.9 


6.6 


5.60 


493514.6 


1.9 


2.90 


255569.5 


6.9 


5.70 


502327.4 


2. 


3.10 


273195.9 


7. 


5.80 


511140.2 


2.3 


3.29 


289940.1 


7.3 


5.90 


520052. 


2.6 


3.46 


304921.9 


7.6 


6. 


528766.5 


2.9 


3.64 


320784.9 


7.9 


6.10 


637578.7 


8. 


3.80 


334885.4 


8. 


6.20 


546391.5 


3.3 


3.96 


348974.8 


8.3 


6.30 


555204.5 


3.6 


4.11 


362204.9 


8.6 


6.40 


564017. 


3.9 


4.26 


375424.1 


8.9 


6.49 


571948. 


4. 


4.40 


387762.1 


9. 


6.58 


579880. 


4.3 


4.52 


398337.5 


9.3 


6.66 


586930.2 


4.6 


4.66 


410675.3 


9.6 


6.75 


594861.4 


4.9 


4.78 


421250.6 


9.9 


6.84 


602793.2 


5, 


4.90 


430825.0 


10. 


6.93 


610723.8 



8 INCH DRAIN PIPE. 
Area: 50.2640 inches. 



Fall in 


Velocity 


Discharge 


Fall in 


Velocity 


Discharge 


100 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


100 feet. 


per second 


in gallons 


ft. in. 


in feot. 


in 24 hours. 


ft. in. 


in feet. 


in 24 hours. 


.3 


1.23 


277487.7 


5.3 


5.35 


1206959.3 


.6 


1.65 


372239.7 


5.6 


5.47 


1234031.3 


.9 


2.01 


453455.7 


5.9 


5.59 


1261103.3 


1. 


2.33 


525647.7 


6. 


6.71 


1288175.3 


1.3 


2.60 


586559.7 


6.3 


6.83 


1315247.3 


1.6 


2.85 


642959.6 


6.6 


5.95 


1343838.9 


1.9 


3.08 


694847.6 


6.9 


6.07 


1369391.3 


2. 


3.30 


744479.7 


7. 


6.17 


1391951.2 


2.3 


3.50 


789599.6 


7.3 


6.27 


1414531.1 


2.6 


3.70 


844719.7 


7.6 


6.39 


1441583.2 


2.9 


3.89 


877583.5 


7.9 


6.50 


1466399.3 


3. 


4.05 


913679.5 


8. 


6.60 


1488959.2 


3.3 


4.21 


949775.6 


8.3 


6.70 


1511539.1 


3.6 


4.37 


971658.7 


8.6 


6.80 


1634099.0 


3.9 


4.53 


920447.4 


8.9 


6.90 


1556658.9 


4. 


4.67 


1055551.4 


9. 


7. 


1579199.3 


4.3 


4.81 


1086135.4 


9.3 


7.10 


1601759.2 


4.6 


4.95 


1116718.7 


9.6 


7.20 


1624319.1 


4.9 


5.08 


1146047.4 


9.9 


7.29 


1644622.1 


5. 


6.22 


1177631.3 


10. 


7.38 


1664927.1 



CHAPTER III, 



DEPTH OF DRAINS. 

The proper depth of drains, depends on various condi- 
tions, but especially on the amount of outfall, and the 
nature of the soil. In some fields, it may be possible to 
obtain ready outfall for drains thirty inches in depth, 
where great expense would be incurred, if the drains were 
laid at depths of three or four feet ; in such a case, it is 
better to use comparatively shallow drains and compen- 
sate by placing them at shorter distances. On the other 
hand, there are situations where the outfall is sufiicient, 
and where a soil of porous materials lies on clay at a 
depth of four feet ; it is then better, and in the end 
cheaper, to put the drain down upon the clay, and at pro- 
portionately greater distances apart. The cost will also 
be considered, in settling questions of depth and distance ; 
deep drains are disproportionately expensive for the cost 
of taking out the lower foot of a four feet drain, and is 
almost equal to that of removing the upper three feet ; 
while shallow drains, which require to be nearer together, 
involve a greater outlay for tiles. There has been an im- 
mense amount of controversy between the advocates of 
shallow drains, and the advocates of the deep, the one 
part preferring a depth of two feet six inched, the other a 
depth of four feet. Practical and experienced men have 
come to regard these two opinions, as indicating the pos- 
sible range of useful drainage, either of which may be 
adopted under special circumstances, while in almost all 
cases the most useful and economical depth lies betMcen 
these extremes, or about three feet. 

(284) 



DEPTH OF DRAINS. 285 

The depth of the drain being one of the most important 
considerations, we will give at some length the opinions 
of those who have had ample experience, added to very 
extensive observations. The first authority we shall refer 
to, is Mr. Gisborne : 

"Many experiments have shown that, in retentive soils, the temper- 
ature at 2 or 3 feet below the surface of the water table is, at no pe- 
riod of the year, higher than from 4G° to 48°, i. e. in agricultural 
Britain. Tliis temperature is little affected by summer heats, for 
the following short reasons. Water, in a quiescent state is one of 
the worse conductors of heat with which we are acquainted. Water 
warmed at the surface transmits little or no heat downward. The 
small portion warmed expands, becomes lighter than that below, 
consequently retains its position on the surface, and carries no heat 
downward.' To ascertain the mean heat of the air at the surface 
of the earth over any extended space, and for a period of eight or 
nine months, is no simple operation. More elements enter into such 
a calculation than we have space or ability to enumerate ; but we 
know certainly that, for seven months in the year, air, at the surface 
of the ground, is seldom lower than 48°, never much lower, and only 
for short periods : whereas, at four feet from the surface, in the 
shade, from 70° to 80° is not an unusual temperature, and in a south- 
ern exposure, in hot sunshine, double that tempei-ature is not unfre- 
quently obtained on the surface. Now let us consider the effect of 
drains placed from 2 to 3 feet below the water table, and acting dur- 
ing the seven months of which we have spoken. They draw out 
water of the temperature of 48°. Every particle of water which they 
withdraw at this temperature is replaced by an equal bulk of air at 
a higher, and frequently at a much higher temperature. The warmth 
of the air is carried down into the earth. The temperature of the soil, 
to the depth to which the water is removed, is in a course of constant 
assimilation to the temperature of the air at the surface. From this 



1 When water is heated from below, the portion first subjected to the heat 
rises to the surface, and every portion is successively subjected to the heat 
and rises, and each, having lost some of its heat at the surface, is in turn 
displaced. Constant motion is kept up, and a constant approximation to 
an equal temperature in the whole body. The application of superficial 
heat has no tendency to disturb the quiescence of water. 



286 LAND DRAINAGE. 

it follows necessarilj', that during that period of the year when the 
temperature of air at the surface of the earth is generally below 48°, 
retentive soils which have been drained are colder than those which 
have not. Perhaps this is no disadvantage. In still more artificial 
cultivation than the usual run of agriculture, gardeners are not in- 
sensible to the advantage of a total suspension of vegetation for a 
short period. In Britain, we suffer, not from an excess of cold in 
Avinter, but from a deficiency of warmth in summer. Grapes and 
maize, to which our somber skies deny maturity, come to full perfec- 
tion in many regions whose winters are longer and more severe than 
ours. However, we state the facts, without asking to put a large 
amount therefrom to the credit of our drainage. 

" Mr. Parkes gives temperatures on a Lancashire flat moss, but 
they only commence at 7 inches below the surface, and do not ex- 
tend to midsummer. At that period of the year the temperature at 
7 inches never exceeded 66°, and was generally from 10° to 15° below 
the temperature of air in the shade, at 4 feet above the earth. At 
the depth of 13 inches the soil was generally from 5° to 8° cooler 
than at 7 inches. Mr. Parkes' experiments were made simultane- 
ously on a drained and on an undrained portion of the moss ; and 
the result was, that, on a mean of 35 observations, the drained soil 
at 7 inches in depth was 10° warmer than the undrained at the same 
depth. The undrained soil never exceeded 47°, whereas after a 
thunder-storm the drained reached 66° at 7 inches, and 48° at 31 
inches. Such were the effects at an early period of the year on a 
black bog. They suggest some idea of what they are, when in July 
or August thunder-rain at 60° or 70° falls on a surfiice heated to 130°, 
and carries down with it into the greedy fissures of the earth its 
augmented temperature. These advantages porous soils possess by 
nature, and retentive soils only acquire them by drainage.^ 

1 The only temperature of thunder rain given in Mr. Parkes' Tables is 78. 
This, we imagine, must be an extreme heat. We have heard, with much 
satisfaction, that Mr. Parkes is, by means of his numerous staff stationed 
at the works which he is carrying on in many parts of Great Britain, Ire- 
land, and (we believe) France, conducting a series of experiments on 
the temperatures of water of drainage, which tend to show an increase 
in some proportion to the length of time for which the drainage has been 
executed. We know no experiments connected with agriculture to the re- 
sult of which we look with more hopeful expectation. Any agriculturist may, 
by means of a delicate thermometer, conduct and record such observations 
on his own farm. Probably the water of drainage from firm land rnay bo 



DEPTH OF DRAINS. 287 

" In all soils the existence of the water table nearer than 4 feet 
from the surface of the land is prejudicial to vegetation. Here open 
upon us the yelpings of the whole shallow pack. Pour feet! The 
same depth for all soils! Here's quackery! We think Mr. Parkes 
must have stood in very unnecessary awe of this pack, when he 
penned the following half-apologetic sentence, which is quite at va- 
riance with the wise decision with which, in other passages of his 
works, he insists on depths of four feet and upward in all soils : 
' In respect of the depth at which drains may, with a certainty of 
action, be placed in a soil, I pretend to assign no rule ; for there 
can not, in my opinion, be a more crude or mistaken idea than that 
one rule of depth is applicable with equal efficiency to soils of all 
kinds. '^ Those words — equal efficiency — are a sort of saving clause ; 
for we do not believe that when Mr. Parkes wrote them, he enter- 
tained ' the crude or mistaken idea' of ever putting in an agricultu- 
ral drain less than 4 feet deep, if he could help it. We will supply 
the deficiency in Mr. Parkes' explanation, and will show that the 
idea of a minimum depth of four feet is neither crude nor mistaken. 
And as to * quackery' — which occurs passim in the writings and 
speeches of the shallow drainers — there is no quackery in assigning 
a minimum. Every drainer does it, and must do it. The shallow- 
est man must put his drains out of the way of the plow and of the 
feet of cattle. That is his minimum. The man who means to sub- 
soil must be out of the way of his agricultural implement. These 
two minima are fixed on mechanical grounds. We will fix a mini- 
mum founded on ascertained facts and on the principles of vegetation. 

" Every gentleman who, at his matutinal or ante-prandial 
toilet, will take his well-dried sponge, and dip the tip of it into 
water, will find that the sponge will become wet above the 
point of contact between the sponge and the water, and thi.s 
wetness will ascend up the sponge, in a diminishing ratio, to 
the point where the forces of attraction and of gravity are equal. 
This illustration is for gentlemen of the Clubs, of London draw- 
ing-rooms, of the Inns of Court, and for others of similar habits. 
For gentlemen who are floriculturists, we have an illustration 

expected to be higher in temperature than that from the quoted bog in sum- 
mer, and lower in winter. 

I Smith of Deanston may perhaps be open to some observation, for we 
believe that he did unadvisedly recommend, in thorough draining, an equal 
depth and equal distance for parallel drains in all soils. 



288 LAND DRAINAGE. 

much more apposite to the point which we are discussing. Take a 
flower-pot a foot deep, filled with dry soil. Place it in a saucer con- 
taining three inches of water. The first effect will be, that the water 
will rise through the hole in the bottom of the pot till the water 
which fills the interstices between the soil is on a level with the 
water in the saucer. This effect is by gravity. The upper surface 
of this water is our water table. From it water will ascend by at- 
traction through the whole body of soil till moisture is apparent at 
the surface. Put in your soil at 60°, a reasonable summer heat for 
nine inches in depth, your water at 47° the seven inches' tempera- 
ture of Mr. Parkes' undrained bog; the attracted water will ascend 
at 47°, and will diligently occupy itself in attempting to reduce the 
C0° soil to its own temperature. Moreover, no sooner will the soil 
hold water of attraction, than evaporation will begin to carry it off, 
and will produce the cold consequent thereon. This evaporated 
water will be replaced by water of attraction at 47°, and this double . 
cooling process will go on till all the water in the water table is ex- 
hausted. Supply water to the saucer as fast as it disappears, and 
then the process will be perpetual. The system of saucer-watering 
is reprobated by every intelligent gardener ; it is found by experi- 
ence to chill vegetation; besides which, scarcely any cultivated 
plant can dip its roots into stagnant water with impunity. Exactly 
the process which we have described in the flower-pot is constantly 
in operation on undrained retentive soil : the water table may not 
be within nine inches of the surface, but in very many instances it 
is within a foot or eighteen inches, at which level the cold surplus 
oozes into some ditch or other superficial outlet. At 18 inches, at- 
traction will, on the average of soils, act with considerable power. 
Here, then, you have two obnoxious principles at work, both pro- 
ducing cold, and the one administering to the other. The obvious 
remedy is, to destroy their united action; to break through their line 
of communication. Remove your water of attraction to such a depth 
that evaporation can not act upon it, or but feebly. What is that 
depth ? In ascertaining this point we are not altogether without 
data. No doubt depth diminishes the power of evaporation rapidly. 
Still, as water taken from a 30 inch drain is almost invariably two or 
three degrees colder than water taken from 4 feet, and as this latter 
is generally one or two degrees colder than water from a contiguous 
well several feet below, we can hardly avoid drawing the conclusion 
that the cold of evaporation has considera])le influence at 30 inches, 
a much diminished influence at 4 feet, and little or none below that 



DEPTH OF DRAINS. 289 

depth. If the water table is removed to the depth of 4 feet, -when 
we have allowed 18 inches of attraction, we shall still have 30 inches 
of defense against evaporation ; and we are inclined to believe that 
any prejudicial combined action of attraction and evaporation is 
thereby well guarded against. The facts stated seem to prove that 
less will not suffice. 

" A farmer manures a field of four or five inches of free soil re- 
posing on a retentive clay, and sows it with wheat. Tt comes up, 
and between the kernel and the manure it looks well for a time, but 
anon it sickens. An Irish child looks well for five or six yeai's, but 
after that time potatoe feeding, and filth, and hardship, begin to tell. 
You ask what is amiss with the wheat, and you are told that when 
its roots reach the clay they are poisoned. This field is then tho- 
rough drained, deep, at least four feet. It receives again from the 
cultivator the previous treatment ; the wheat comes up well, main- 
tains a healthy aspect, and gives a good return. What has become 
of the poison ? We have been told that rain water filtered through 
the soil has taken it into solution or suspension, and has carried it 
off" through the drains, and men who assume to be of authority put. 
forward this as one of the advantages of draining. If we believed 
it we could not advocate draining. We really should not have the 
face to tell our readers that water, passing through soils containing 
elements prejudicial to vegetation, would carry them off", but would 
leave those which are beneficial behind. * We can not make our 
water so discriminating; the general merit of water of deep drain- 
age is, that it contains very little. Its perfection would be, that it 
should contain nothing. We understand that experiments are in 
progress which have ascertained that water, charged with matters 
which are known to stimulate vegetation, when filtered through four 
feet of retentive soil, comes out pure. ^ But to return to our wheat. 
In the first case, it shrinks before the cold of evaporation, and the cold 
of water of attraction, and it sickens because its feet are never dr/; 
it suff"ers the usual maladies of cold and wet. In the second case, 
the excess of cold by evaporation is withdraAvn; the cold water of 
attraction is removed out of its way; the warm air from the surface, 

' We do not deny that some subsoils contain matter prejudicial to vege- 
tation, but generally they are not worse than a caimt mortitum ; seldom quite 
so bad. 

^ Since this Es.say was first printeil, a portion of these experiments has 
been communicated to the public by Professor Way. 

26 



290 LAND DRAINAGE. 

rushing in to supply the place of the water which the drains re- 
move, and the warm summer rains, bearing down with them the 
temperature which they have acquired from the upper soil, carry a 
genial heat to its lowest roots. Health, vigorous growth, and early 
maturity are the natural consequences. 

" Water can only get into drains by gravity, which only acts by 
descent — technically, by fall ; the fall must be proportioned to the 
fi'iction which the water encounters on its passage. Suppose drains 
four feet deep to be placed twelve yards apart on level land, it is 
plain that water at that depth, lying at the intermediate point 
between the two drains, will not get into either of them. A fall of 
some inches will be required to enable it to overcome the friction of 
six yards of i-etentive soil. In order, therefore, to lower the water 
table to four feet at all points, the drains must be some inches deeper 
than four feet. If the land lies on a slope (say four inches to the 
yard), drains of four feet, if driven on the line of steepest descent, 
will effect the object; because, though water at four feet, lying at 
the intermediate point between two drains, in a line at right angles 
to them, can not for want of fall get into either of them by travel- 
ing six yards, it will find a fall of four inches at less than seven, and 
of eight inches at less than eight, yards. If Ave must speak quite 
correctly, this intermediate water will never get into the drain till 
there is a fresh supply ; it will descend perpendicularly, pushing out 
that which lies below it, and will be itself displaced by a fresh ar- 
rival from the heavens. In order that the whole soil, if homogene- 
ous, or nearly so, may be drained evenly, it is manifest that the 
drains must be parallel. Extra friction in the soil must be met 
either by making the drains deeper, or by placing them nearer. On 
this point, which is one of practice rather than of principle, each 
case must be left to the sagacity of the operator. We doubt whether 
in any natural soil the friction is so great as to resist a fall of one 
inch in a yard. If we are right in this point, we should always at- 
tain the object of lowering the water table to four feet by 4-feet 
inch drains, parallel, and twelve yards apart. We have already 
stated one advantage which results on a slope from driving the par- 
allel drains in the line of steepest descent: to-wit, that when they 
are so driven, all water which lies at the same depth from the sur- 
face at the bottoms of the drains, can find a fall into one or the 
other by traveling a little more than half the distance between 
them; whereas, if the drains are driven across the slope, half the 
water so situated as to depth can only find a fall into the lower 



DEPTH OF DAMNS. 291 

drain, and in order to reach it must travel distiinces varying from 
one half to the full interval between the two. 

"We shall dismiss, with a very few words, two classes of writers 
on the subject of draining: 1. Those who limit the advantages of 
a drain to the water which is passed into it from its own surface, 
and who, therefore, enjoin that it should be filled with porous mate- 
rial, and that it should be shallow. 2. Those who will not drain 4 
or 5 feet deep because it makes the ground too dry for the roots of 
plants. This idea must have come from some garret, having been 
conceived by an ingenious recluse brooding over his ignorance, and 
reasoning as follows : What makes vegetation burn up ? The absence 
of water from its roots. What takes away the water ? Deep drains. 
Ergo, deep drains are the cause of burning. We will supply a for- 
mula: Why does vegetation burn? Because its roots are very super- 
ficial. Why superficial ? Because they won't face the cold of stag- 
nant water. What removes the cold and the water? Deep drains. 
And the facts exactly coincide with our logic. Deep drained lands 
never do burn. Nothing burns sooner than a few inches of soil on 
a very retentive clay. No land is less subject to burn than the same 
soil when, by 4 or 5 feet draining, a range of 3 or 4 feet has been 
given to the previously superficial roots. 

" Having dismissed these two small matters, we must treat more 
respectfully a lingering skepticism as to the efficacy of deep drains 
in very retentive soils; and instead of wondering at this skepticism, 
we wonder rather that deep thorough draining has so rapidly made 
converts. Representations are made of soils which consist of some 
inches of a moderately porous material reposing on a subsoil which 
is said to be impervious ; and we are told that it is of no use to 
make the drain deeper into the impervious matter than will suffice 
for laying the conduit. If the subsoil is impervious, as glass or even 
as cast iron or caoutchouc are impervious, we at once admit the 
soundness of the .argument. We only want to ask one question : fs 
your subsoil moister after the rains of midwinter than it is after 
the drought of midsummer? If it is, it will drain. Mr. Mechi asks, 
shrewdly enough : ' If your soil is impervious, how did you get it 
wet?' This imperviousness is always predicated of strong clays — 
plastic clays they are sometimes called. We really thought that no 
one was so ignorant as not to be aware that clay lands always shrink 
and crack with drought, and the stifi'er the clay the greater the 
shrinking, as brickmakers well know. In the great drought thirty- 
Mix years ago, we saw, in a very retentive soil in the Vale of Bel- 



292 LAND DKAINA(ilE. 

vpir, cracks ■which it was not very pleasant to ride among. "J'his 
very summer, on land vrhich, with reference to this very subject, the 
owner stated to he impervious, we put a walking-stick three feet into 
a sun crack without finding a bottom, and the whole surface was 
what Mr. Parkes not inappropriately calls a net-work of cracks. 
When heavy rain comes upon the soil in this state, of course, the 
cracks fill, the clay imbibes the water, expands, and the cracks are 
abolished. But if there are 4 or 5 feet parallel drains in the land, 
the water passes at once into them, and is carried off. In fact, when 
heavy rain falls upon clay lands in this cracked state, it passes off 
too quickly, Avithout adequate filtration. Into the fissures of the 
undrained soil, the roots only penetrate to be perished by the cold 
and wet of the succeeding winter; but in the drained soil the roots 
follow the threads of vegetable mold which have been washed into 
the cracks, and get an abiding tenure. Earth worms follow either 
the roots or the mold. Permanent schisms are established in the 
clay, and its whole character is changed. An old farmer in a mid- 
land county began with 20 inch drains across the hill, and, without 
ever reading a word, or, we believe, conversing with any one on the 
subject, poked his way, step by step, to 4 or 5 feet drains in the line 
of steepest descent. Showing us his drains this spring, he said: 
' They do better year by year ; the water gets a habit of coming to 
them.' A very correct statement of the fact, though not a very phi- 
losophical explanation. Year by year the average di'yness of the 
soil increases, the cracks are further extended, and seldomer oblite- 
rated. A man may drain retentive soils deep and well, but he will 
be disappointed if he expects what is unreasonable. No intelligent 
and honest operator will say more than that money judiciously ex- 
pended in draining them will pay good, and generally very good, in- 
terest. If you eat off turnips with sheep, if you plow the land, or 
cart on it, or in any Avay puddle it when it is wet, of course the 
water will lie on the surfiice, and will not go to your drains. A 4-feet 
drain may go very near a pit or a watercourse without attracting 
water from either, because watercourses almost invariably puddle 
their beds, and the same effect is produced in pits by the treading 
of cattle, and even by the motion of the water produced by wind. 
A very thin film of puddle always wet on one side is impervious, 
because it ciin not crack. 

"No system of draining can relieve soils of water of attraction. 
That can only be exhausted by evaporation. Retentive soils hold it 
in excess; its reduction by evaporation produces cold; and, there- 



DEPTH OF DRAINS. 293 

fore, retentive soils never can be so warm as porous. Expect 
reasonable things only of your drained retentive soils, and you will 
not be disappointed. Shallow drainers start with the idea of a drop 
of water falling on the top of the soil, and working its solitary way 
through narrow and tortuous passages to a drain ; and they say that 
it would be lost in the labyrinth, which we think very likely. They 
have no idea that the water operated upon by the drain is that which 
lies at the level of its own bottom, which runs off, and is replaced by 
that which was immediately above it. And on account of this ope- 
ration, which we have before explained, it is necessary in retentive 
soils, in which friction is greater than in porous, to have the drains 
deeper, in order to lower the water table to the same extent. A 
column of six inches may suffice to push water from the intermedi- 
ate point between two drains in a porous soil, and it may require a 
12-inch column in a retentive. In that case the drain in the reten- 
tive soil must be six inches deeper than in the porous. Ignorance 
says : Drain shallower because the soil is retentive. Experience 
and reason say : Drain deeper. We may here notice, that in clay 
lands the portion Avithin one to two feet of the surface is almost 
always more retentive than that which lies below; simply, we appre- 
hend, because its particles have been comminuted and packed close 
by the alternate influences of Avet and dry, heat and cold. When 
dried below by drains, and above by evaporation, it is certain to 
crack and become permeable; and this operation may, if necessary, 
be assisted by subsoiling or other artificial means. 

" Smith, of Deanston, first called prominent attention to the fertil- 
izing effects of rain filtered through land, and to evils produced by 
allowing it to flow off the surface. Any one will see how much 
more effectually this benefit will be attained, and this evil avoided, 
by a 4-feet than by a 2-feet drainage. The latter can only prepare 
two feet of soil for the reception and retention of rain, which two 
feet, being saturated, will reject more, and the surplus must run off 
the surface, carrying whatever it can find with it. A 4-feet drainage 
will be constantly tending to have four feet of soil ready for the re- 
ception of rain, and it will take much more rain to saturate four feet 
than two. Moreover, as a gimlet hole bored four feet from the sur- 
face of a barrel filled with water will discharge much more in a 
given time than a similar hole bored at the depth of tv/'o feet, so will 
a 4-feet drain discharge in a given time much more water than a 
drain of two feet. One is acted on by a 4-feet, and the other by a 
2-rept pressure." 



294 LAND DRAINAGE, 

The controversy between deep drains and shallow drains 
induced a great many experiments to be made. Among 
these experimenters was Lord Wharncliffe, who adopted 
a kind of compromise system, combining four feet and 
two feet drains. 

Lord Wharncliffe states his principles as follows, and 
calls his method the combined system of deep and shallow 
drainage : 

"In order to secure the full eflfect of thorough drainage in clays, 
it is necessary that there should be not only well-laid conduits for 
the water which reaches them, but also subsidiary passages opened 
through the substance of the close subsoil, by means of atmospheric 
heat, and the contraction which ensues from it. The cracks and 
fissures which result from this action, are reckoned upon as a cer- 
tain and essential part of the process. 

"To give efiSciency, therefore, to a system of deep drains beneath 
a stiff clay, these natural channels are required. To produce them, 
there must be a continued action of heat and evaporation. If we 
draw off effectually and constantly the bottom water from beneath 
the clay and from its substance, as far as it admits of percolation, 
and by some other means provide a vent for the upper water, which 
needs no more than this facility to run freely, there seems good 
reason to suppose that the object may be completely attained, and 
that we shall remove the moisture from both portions as effectually 
as its quantity and the substance Avill permit. Acting upon this 
view, then, after due consideration, I determined to combine Avitli 
the fundamental four feet drains a system of auxiliary ones of much 
less depth, which should do their work above, and contribute their 
share to the wholesome discharge, while the under-current from 
their more subtei-ranean neighbors should be steadily performing 
their more difficult duty. 

"I accomplished this, by placing my four feet drains at a distance 
of from eighteen to twenty yards apart, and then leading others into 
them, sunk only to about two feet beneath the surface (which ap- 
peared, upon consideration, to be sufficiently below any conceivable 
depth of cultivation), and laying these at a distance from each other 
of eight yards. These latter are laid at an acute angle with the 
main drains, and at their mouths are either gradually sloped down- 
ward to the lower level, or have a few loose stones placed in the 



DEPTH OF DRAINS. 295 

same intervals between the two, sufficient to insure the perpendicu- 
lar descent of the upper stream through that space, which can never 
exceed, or, indeed, strictly equal, the two additional two feet." 

Speaking of the Wharncliffe system, Gisborne remarks : 

"Were I to adopt his lordship's system, J must abandon, 1st., the 
principle of depth; and 2d., the principle of direction; and if I 
abandoned those two principles, I had much better put this treatise 
into the fire than send it to I\Ir. Murray for publication." 

Alderman Mechi, speaking of deep drainage, says: 

" Ask nineteen farmers out of twenty, who hold strong clay land, 
and they will tell you it is of no use placing deep four foot drains 
in such soils — the water can not get in; a horse's foot-hole (without 
an opening under it) will hold water like a basin ; and so on. Well, 
five minutes after, you tell the same farmers you propose digging a 
cellar, well bricked, six or eight feet deep; what is their remark? 
'Oh! it's of no use your making an underground cellar in our soil, 
3'ou can't keep the water out !' Was there ever such an illustration 
of prejudice as this ? What is a drain pipe but a small cellar full 
of air? Then, again, common sense tells us, you can't keep a light 
fluid under a heavy one. You might as well try to keep a cork 
under water, as to try and keep air under watei*. ' Oh ! but then our 
soil is n't porous.' If not, how can it hold water so readily ? 1 am 
led to these observations by the strong controversy I am having with 
some Essex folks, who protest that I am mad, or foolish, for placing 
1-inch pipes, at four feet depth, in strong clays. It is in vain I refer 
to the numerous proofs of my soundness, brought forward by Mr. 
Parkes, engineer to the Eoyal Agricultural Society, and confirmed 
by Mr. Pusey. They still dispute it. It is in vain 1 tell them I can 
not keep the rainwater out of socketed pipes, twelve feet deep, that 
convey a spring to my farm-yard. Let us try and convince this 
large class of doubters ; for it is of national importance. Four feet 
of good porous clay would afford a far better meal to some strong 
bean, or other tap roots, than the usual six inches; and a saving 
of $4 to $5 per acre, in drainage, is no trifle. 

" The shallow, or non-drainers, assume that tenacious subsoils are 
impervious or non-absorbent. This is entirely an erroneous assump- 
tion. If soils were impervious, how could they get wet? 

" I assert, and pledge my agricultural reputation for the fact, that 
there are no earths or clavs in this kini;doni, be they ever so tena- 



296 LAND DRAINAGE. 

cious, that will not readily receive, filter, and transmit rain water to 
drains placed 5 or more feet deep. 

" A neighbor of mine drained 20 inches deep in strons; clay ; the 
ground cracked widely ; the contraction destroyed the tiles, and the 
rains washed the surface soil into the cracks and choked the drains. 
He has since abandoned shallow draining. 

" When 1 first began draining, I allowed myself to be overrujed by 
my obstinate man, Pearson, who insisted that, for top water, 2 feet 
was a sufficient depth in a veiny soil. 1 allowed him to try the ex. 
periment on two small fields ; the result was, that nothing prospered ; 
and I am re-draining those fields at one lialf the cost, 5 and 6 feet 
deep, at intervals of 70 and 80 feet. 

*'l found iron-sand rocks, strong clay, silt, iron, etc., and an enor- 
mous quantity of water, all below the 2-feet drains. This accounted 
at once for the sudden check the crops always met with in May, 
when they wanted to send their roots down, but could not, without 
going into stagnant water." 

Good results are always obtained from three feet drains, 
and there can be no doubt that the results Avould be more 
permanent with four feet drains. Where drains at three 
feet deep will accomplish all practical purposes for a pe- 
riod of twenty-five or thirty years, it will require very 
strong arguments indeed to induce the farmers to drain 
to the depth of four feet. 

In this country, every farmer, as a general thing, owns 
the land he cultivates, and in a majority of instances has 
earned, with his own hands, every dollar that he paid for 
the farm and its improvements. In an improvement so 
permanent as underdraining proposes to be, the farmer 
" counts the cost"' very closely and \erj freque)itli/, he- 
fore commencing it, and if he is fully satisfied that good 
results w^ill attend his efforts, when draining at a depth 
of three feet, at an expense equal to three fourths of the 
amount that draining four feet would cost, scarcely any 
argument would induce him to drain at a depth of the 
;;dditional foot. And the farmer is fully justified in this 
course, in the Middle and Western states. Landed estates 



DEPTH OF DRAINS. 297 

cliange Inmds very rapidly in this country. Suppose a 
farmer incurs a debt of $1000, for any improvement over 
and above his immediate means. He can not mortgage 
his " crops in the ground," to secure this amount, be- 
cause drought, hail, insects, or other adversities beyond 
his control may destroy them ; he can not mortgage his 
sheep, because dogs may kill them, nor his cattle, because 
there is a possibility that they may die of pleuro-pneu- 
monia, trembles, murrain, or a dozen other diseases ; so 
that no other resource is left than to mortgage the fai'm 
itself. Should the mortgage mature, and crops be short, 
or prices unreraunerative, the creditor can foreclose and 
the farmer be sold by the sheriff, in one hundred days or 
less. This is no fancy sketch; Ohio farmers have so fre- 
quently witnessed the fate of neighboring farmers, in this 
respect, that they have become exceedingly cautious so 
far as involving themselves in indebtedness is concerned. 
In England or Germany, where lands seldom pass out 
of the hands of the family, even if the proprietor is ab- 
solutely bankrupt, larger amounts can be hazarded in 
improvements, without incurring the risk of losing the 
farm. In those countries they may insist on draining 
at four feet as a minimum depth. For reasons already 
given, we believe the minimum will be determined by 
each man for himself, without regard to system or theory, 
on the following basis, viz. : to lay the tile at such a depth 
that neither the plow nor subsoil plow will interfere with 
it, and that it will be beyond the range of frost. We 
think that these two points, namely, beyond the range of 
the frost, and out of reach of the subsoil plow, will deter- 
mine the depth of drains in more instances, in this coun- 
try, than all the illustrations that English or German 
draining engineers can adduce from experience in favor 
of very deep draining. 



298 LAND DRAINAGE, 

It is not an uncommon phenomenon to find the earth, in 
cultivated fields, consisting of loamy soils, frozen to the 
depth of 14 to 16 inches. In a cemetery we once saw a 
loamy clay frozen to the depth of 22 inches. Under- 
drained soils always freeze considerably deeper than un- 
drained ones. If then the soil in a field freezes to the 
depth of 16 inches, it is safe to infer that if the field 
is well underdrained, the frost will find its way down 
fully two feet. We would not advise any one to under- 
drain at a depth less than 30 inches, and where the fall, 
and pecuniary means will warrant, Ave would insist that 3 
feet should be considered the minimum, in all soils requir- 
ing underdraining. 

The day is not far distant when subsoiling will be much 
more generally practiced. Improvements seldom termin- 
ate with the initiatory step, and the man who is sufficiently 
convinced of the importance of underdraining, and puts 
it in practice on his farm, will not hesitate to use the sub- 
soil plow, and tile laid at a depth less than 30 inches, will 
not probably be beyond the reach of this plow. 

The difference in cost between a three and a four feet 
drain is considerably more than one would at first sup- 
pose. A good English ditcher, in ordinary clay soil, will 
make eight rods of three feet drain per day, but will not 
make more than five rods of four feet in the same time — 
in fact, he seldom will make over four. To sink a three 
feet drain one foot lower, will cost nearly as much for the 
last foot as for the preceding three — for reasons that 
every practical man Avill at once understand. Drains for 
tile are narrowed from the top to the bottom — they are 
generally 14 to 18 inches wide at the top, and four inches 
only, or just wide enough to admit the tile, at the bottom. 
Now, although the last foot in a four feet drain contains 
no more earth to be removed than the last foot in a 



DEPTH OF DRAINS. 299 

three feet drain, yet it is a foot loiver, and must conse- 
quently be thrown a foot Jdgher up, without taking into 
account the pile of earth already excavated on which or 
over which this last foot must be thrown. 

When thorough drainage was first introduced into Scot- 
land, it is said that 10,000 miles of drains were laid, at a 
depth of two feet, when it was discovered that this depth 
was not sufficient. In England large tracts were laid with 
tile at 12 to 18 inches deep. Of course the experiment- 
ers were gratified with the success which crowned their 
efforts — the land was in a tillable condition early in the 
seasons, and the surplus waters removed. But noAV the 
opposite extreme is advocated, and Alderman Mechi has 
gone so far as to make some drains 14 feet deep ! 

So far as draining the surface water, or the water fall- 
ing in the shape of rain or snow is concerned, the Alder- 
man says ■. 

"After all that has been said and written on the subject, I have 
arrived at the following conclusions : 

" 1. That Mr. Parkes' statement is a convincing proof that one-inch 
pipes (without stones, straw or brushes) placed four feet deep, at 
intervals of thirty feet, will effectually and permanently drain the 
heaviest soils of the utmost quantity of surface water that can possi- 
bly fall, at a cost of from £2 to £3 per acre. That in mixed soils, 
the one-inch pipes, four feet deep and fifty feet apart, will perfectly 
drain such soils, at a cost of about 45s.' per acre. 

" 2. That although those drains do not, the first year after being 
made, act so effectually as stones with pipes on my plan, which carry 
off the water at once ; still the immense difference in cost, and greater 
depth, render Mr. Parkes' plan by far most desirable. 

" 3. There can be no doubt that it is the depth of the drain which 
regulates the escape of the surface water in a given time ; regard 
being had, as respects extreme distances, to the nature of the soil, 
and a due capacity of the pipe. The deeper the drain, even in the 
strongest soils, the quicker the icater escapes. This is an astounding 
but certain fact. 

"4. That deep and distant drains, where a sufficient fall can bo 



300 LAND DRAINAGE. 

obtained, aro by far the most profitable, by affording to the I'oots of 
plants a greater range for food. 

" 5. That had I to redrain my heavy land, I should do so, at least 
four feet deep, with inch-pipes at intervals of thirty feet, carrying 
each pipe with the fall of the land direct to an open ditch of ample 
capacity. I should thus economize several open ditches on my farm, _ 
vphich are at present a waste of ground. Each drain would thus be 
its own leader. 

" I should place the pipes in the drains without stones, or other 
matter, merely covering them with the clay itself, leaving the drains 
open as long as possible, as practiced by Mr. Hammond. I should 
thus save £7 per acre on the cost of my draining, and have a greater 
depth of soil. The loss would be the difference between a perfect 
and imperfect drainage the first two years. 

"In conclusion, I consider the balance of evidence, Avhcn stones 
and pipes are u.sed, is in favor of the pipe being placed at the 
bottom." 



CHAPTEK IV. 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 

A RULE formerly adopted in England, that " the dis- 
tance between parallel drains may be increased propor- 
tionably with their depth ; and that drains may be laid as 
many perches apart as they are feet deep " — is no longer 
regarded as being correct. There are so many different 
kinds of soil that no general rule can be given which will 
be alike applicable to all ; but er.ch kind must be dealt 
with according to its inherent qualities. As a general 
thing, a depth of four feet for clay soils, appears to be 
uniformly adopted in England and Germany; but this is, 
perhaps, deeper than those who desire to drain in this 
country can afford to go, on account of the increased cost 
of the last foot in depth. 

The distance between the minor drains, in thorough 
draining, depends on various circumstances, such as their 
depth, and the nature of the soil and subsoil. The greater 
the depth, the greater may be the distance ; the more 
clayey and tenacious the soil, the nearer should the minor 
drains be placed. On stiff clay soils, the distance should 
be less than a rod and a half; on loose soils, resting on 
clay, a drain every two rods will be sufficient. 

A system was at one time advocated of digging experi- 
mental or " trial lioles" and regulating the depth accord- 
ing to the degree of moisture, but this produced such very 
variable results, both with regard to depth of drains and 
distance between them, as to afford no reliable data for a 
general system. These experimental holes gave rise, in 
the hands of Joshua Trimmer (celebrated as the author 

(301) 



302 LAND DRAINAGE. 

of a very comprehensive treatise on "Practical Geology 
and Mineralogy"), to the noted Keythorpe system of un- 
derdraining. In one of his pamphlets defending the sys- 
tem, Mr. Trimmer says : 

" The peculiarities of the Keythorpe system of draining consist 
in this — that the parallel drains are not equidistant, and that they 
cross the line of the greatest descent The usual depth is three and 
a half feet, but some are as deep as five and six feet. The deptii 
and width of interval are determined by digging trial holes, in order 
to ascertain not only the depth at which the bottom water is reached, 
but the hight to which the Avater rises in the holes, and the distance 
at which a drain will lay the hole dry. In sinking these holes, clay 
banks are found with hollows or furrows between them, which are 
filled with a more porous soil. 

" The next object is to connect these furrows by drains laid across 
them. The result is, that as the furrows and ridges here run along 
the fall of the ground, which I have observed to be the case gen- 
erally elsewhere, the submains follow the fall, and the parallel drains 
cross it obliquely. 

" The intervals between the parallel drains are irregular, varying, 
in the same field, from 14 to 21, 31, and 59 feet. The distances are 
determined by opening the diagonal drains at the greatest distance 
from the trial holes at which experience has taught the practica- 
bility of its draining the hole. If it does not succeed in accom- 
plishing the object, another drain is opened in the interval. It has 
been found, in many cases, that a drain crossing the clay banks and 
furrows takes the water from holes lying lower down the hill; that 
is to say, it intercepts the water flowing to them through these sub- 
terranean channels. The parallel drains, however, are not invari- 
ably laid across the fall. The exceptions are on ground where the 
fall is very slight, in which case they are laid along the line of 
greatest descent. On such grounds there are few or no clay banks 
and furrows." 

Another English doctrine was, that parallel drains may 
be laid as many rods distant from each other as they are 
feet deep. Thus, if the drains are four feet deep, they 
may be laid four rods apart. This doctrine is now re- 
jected as being incorrect- — at least for clay soils. It is 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 303 

not probable that any criterion other than such as experi- 
ence may establish, can be given to determine the distance 
which minor drains should be apart. Those who assert 
that the distance between drains depends entirely upon 
the depth, take as a basis the direction formed by the 
water to the drains, for they say, " The deeper the pipes, 
the greater may the distance be between them, and yet 
afford the water the same angle of outlet," 

This appears somewhat probable, but when we recur to 
hydrostatic laws, the assertion will perhaps lose its entire 
value. 

The proper distance between the drains depends upon 
the space between the particles of the soil entirely ; that 
is, upon the porosity of the earth. The reasons Avhich 
induce this opinion are as follows : 

The water existing in the earth forms a mutually-ad- 
hering mass of its particles, which, in a surface whicli 
may be desiccated by a system of drains, commonly stands 
on a level, with, perhaps, slight differences determined by 
local conditions of the soil. 

The function of drains is to remove that part of this 
mass of water which lies so near the surface as to be 
injurious to the cultivated crop. 

Now, if two drains of like depth are placed parallel in 
the earth, to intercept a portion of the water contained, 
the following conditions relatively arise : 

The water below the drains, which can not be with- 
drawn by them, forms a resisting substratum which pre- 
vents the further sinking of the water above them. But 
to this the drains afford conduits in which it is compelled 
to find its Avay between the particles of the soil. 

The specific gravity of the Avater which impels it to 
sink toward the center of the earth, determines the sink- 
ing of the whole mass into the conduits, until a level is 



304 LAND DllAINAGE. 

reached, but this can not take phice "with the water above 
the pipes. 

The stratum of water beneath the pipes is, at the same 
time, of great importance, because it forms in the drained 
surface the foundation, so to say, upon which the water 
to be drained rests, and gravity being exerted, causes tli£ 
flow in a lateral direction, having no other impediment 
to overcome than friction among the earth particles. The 
original angle of the water line with regard to the pipes 
is a matter of less importance. 

Accordingly, the known hydrostatic law, " every con- 
nected mass of water stands at a uniform level," could 
not exist were it not for the friction which the water 
must overcome in its passage to the drains. 

Again, as the greater or less friction is dependent upon 
the greater or less proximity of the particles of the soil, 
this alone is a measure of the proper distance of the 
drains from each other ; that is, they must be placed at 
such distances from each other that the friction can not 
neutralize the motive power (in this case, specific gravity). 

We base this assertion upon the doctrine of physics, 
that adhesion exerts its influence as soon as it is stronger 
than the gravity which carries the adhering body down- 
ward. 

Therefore, if the porosity of the soil aff'ords drainage 
capacity which may be represented by a given triangle, 
the length of the sides of which represent the depth of 
drain and requisite distance apart, it would be a needless 
expenditure to place the drains nearer together than the 
base of the triangle of indication, or to lay them deeper 
than such base requires to drain a given space. 

The objection which may be urged to this principle, 
that a greater angle contains a greater mass of water, and 
is thus calculated to remove it more rapidly and certainly, 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 305 

as gravity is the motive power, is not tenable, because, 
first, the lesser amount of water in a shallow triangle re- 
quires less time to flow off; and on the other hand, there 
is much less friction to overcome than in a deeper triangle 
of the same breadth or base. This, too, is a matter of 
importance, as even when the water between the particles 
of soil is conjoined to form one mass, the friction is a very 
powerful hindrance to the efflux of the water, as may be 
learned from the experiments referred to below. But if 
a simple, single infraction of the watercourse operate so 
powerfully upon its efflux, how much more must this be 
the case in the millions of curvatures determined in its 
passage of efflux by the relations of the particles of the 
soil ? 

Here it still is to be borne in mind that we speak only 
of sinkages which must first take place in the soil before 
the water reaches the pipes. The soil is more readily 
permeable than the subsoil, and if that be one fourth foot 
deep, the water will have traversed one third of its 
course when it reaches the latter, in case the drains are 
three and a half feet deep ; only one fourth of the course 
will have been passed over when they are five feet deep. 

Now, if it be objected that we have said that gravity is 
the motive power, and we must place the drains so far 
apart as to afford the Avater force (specific gravity, in this 
case), to overcome the friction, this position will be in 
opposition to the foregoing assertion that, in the supposed 
triangle, where the distance between the drains is the 
same, but the depth unequal, the gravity of the water is 
much greater in the deeper triangle, we need only state 
that the formation of the angle of efflux under considera- 
tion can be made by sinkage only, and that the surface 
lying between the extreme points of the triangle is the 
same whatever the depth of the drain, and consequently 
27 



30C) LAND DRAINAGE. 

the sinkage, gravity and pressure must be the same ; but 
aside from this, suppose drains at equal distances, one 
pair of which are five and another three feet deep, if all 
the spaces between the particles of earth in each instance 
were filled with water, the deeper interspace would con- 
tain two fifths more water, and there would be two fifths 
more friction to overcome in its efflux to the drains, and, 
as already stated, the porous soil in the shallow inter- 
space aflfords one third, and in the deeper only one fifth 
of the friction in the mass of earth to be overcome. But 
as the entire pressure of the water is exerted downward, 
the gravity of the upper two strata of water being equal 
for equal surfaces, and in its efflux through the particles 
of the soil, it can only overcome the friction by equal 
pressure, and consequently, in similarly constituted soils, 
will sink with equal rapidity ; and from this it follows 
that the water of one stratum, drained at five feet of depth, 
will sink as rapidly as the corresponding stratum of three 
feet, provided the subsoil above the five feet drain be 
equally permeable. 

But if the subsoil below three feet be less permeable, 
the superficial strata will sink much more slowly than to 
the three feet drain, because the friction is much in- 
creased. 

It is our opinion that this latter circumstance is greatly 
in favor of the shallower drainage, it being understood to 
refer only to temporary humidity. 

In reference to the foregoing, we say to all who are 
enthusiastic in favor of deep draining, that their deep 
drain theories amount to nothing in all those cases where 
the drainage of temporary water is intended. The mass 
of water falling upon a given superficies is the same what- 
ever be the depth of the drain, and hence the distance be- 
tween drains must be the same to carry it oif, and it must 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 307 

be longer in sinking to the deep drain than the shallow 
one. What evidence have deep drainers for their asser- 
tions ? 

Various drains have been made where the fall of the 
earth was such that the outlet pipes would be placed no 
deeper than two and three fourths feet, while the heading 
of the principal drain was placed at five feet of depth. 
Nevertheless, the efi'ects upon all parts of the drained 
surface were equal — there was nowhere a difi"erence in the 
condition of the crop cultivated or its produce. 
;. This fact would be sufficient to confirm the assertion 
above made, but we will call the attention of every one 
who has drained large surfaces to one circumstance which 
most clearly verifies this statement. 

Deep drainers themselves can not avoid, on account 
of the natural inequalities of the ground, placing the pipes 
at a less depth in some places than in the remaining por- 
tions of the drainings, while the distance between the 
drains remains the same. Nevertheless, the unprejudiced 
will certainly find no diff'erence in the growth or produce 
of the crops. 

It is self-evident that the depth of the drains must be 
such that the pipes shall be protected, from every external 
influence, and for this 3 feet of depth are quite sufficient. 

Besides, whoever has done much drainage will certainly 
not dispute the fact, that whatever system may be adopted, 
in many portions of the county it will be found imprac- 
ticable to place the drains at a depth of five feet, or even 
four feet, for want of sufficient fall, to secure a prompt 
outlet into the water of the lakes, rivers, etc., which re- 
ceive the drained water, and that this mutual relation 
becomes more and more unfavorable for deep drainers 
at every foot of increased depth ; so that in all drain sys- 
tems only about 25 per cent, can have an average of five 



308 LAND DRAINAGE. 

feet depth, 10 per cent., b^ feet, and only 5 per cent. 
6 feet depth, on account of the outlet. We repeat that 
the angle of descent, formed by water in its eiflux, depends 
entirely upon the distance between the drains, and this 
again upon the porosity of the soil. (See Fig. 5, page 99.) 

In very porous soil water sinks nearly horizontally. In 
all compact soils, as those consisting more or less of clay 
or loam, it naturally sinks in a perpendicular line over 
the pipes, more rapidly; first, because earth once dug up 
never regains its original compactness, and the water has 
less friction to evercorae; and secondly, because the nat- 
ural law of gravity is in a vertical or perpendicular di- 
rection. 

If, now the stratum of water lying between the drains 
sinks equally rapidly at first, it has, nevertheless, greater 
friction to overcome, which will be greater in proportion 
to the distance from the drain. 

The earth immediately surrounding the drain continues 
to yield its humidity, as this is removed by the drain, and 
consequently sloping lines of efflux will be found. ^ We 
are not aware, however, that these can be determined by 
deeper or shallower drains, but it appears to us that the 
greater or less pitch of these lines is to be measured alone 
by the distance between the drains. This has reference, 
however, only to those masses of water which fall imme- 
diately upon the surfaces to be drained. 

When water has been conducted from a higher point, 
it tends, on account of the pressure from above, to raise 

1 The older the drain is the less perceptible will be this appearance, be- 
cause the earth directly over the drain necessarily cast out, in the process 
of construction, becomes gradually more and more compact, even though 
it never regains its original solidity, yet its porosity constantly diminishes 
with time, while the soil of the interspaces becomes more mellow, and tho 
surface of the water will be drawn otf toward the drains much more bori- 
zontiiUy than in newly completed drains. 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 309 

itself ag.ain, and that in a greater degree as it meets with 
less obstruction. But in a drained surface, obstruction ceases 
■when the rising water reaches the level of the drain pipe, 
as it then finds a free efflux, and to this point all the force 
of pressure tends ; but when the water has once been 
forced into the drain, the law of gravity in the given case 
again comes into action, and the water flows immediately 
toward the discharge of the pipe. 

It is, therefore, very important to determine the proper 
distance between the drains. 

This problem has always appeared to me as one of the 
most important in the science of draining, as most, or we 
might with propriety say, all the success of a drain de- 
pends upon its solution. 

This much is certain, if the distance be too great the 
drain either does not operate at all, or its effect is so tardy 
that it does no good to the crop ; or if the distance be too 
small the work will be disproportionately expensive. To 
obviate these difficulties, it appeared to us necessary to 
examine closely, and find if there were any experiments, 
by means of which a rule for distances, according to dif- 
ferences of soil, could be determined. We have found 
some such in H. Wauer's work on drainage, from which 
we translate the following : 

" For this purpose I instituted experimental drains in similar soil, 
at unequal distances, and observed their effect. 

" After I had determined the distance of perfect drainage for the 
given soil, I took this as a basis for further observation and experi- 
ments, and proceeded as follows: 

"I first ascertained the amount of clay contained in the soil, then 
desiccated a portion of this in an oven. I then filled a glass tube 18 
inches long, two thirds full of this soil, and covered the lower end 
with a piece of thin linen, to permit water to flow off readily. I 
then added a certain quantity of water, and marked the time ex- 



310 LAND DRAINAGE. 

actly when it had all escaped at the lower extremity of the tube, 
minus what was retained by the force of cohesion. 

" This experiment 1 repeated with different grades of soil, and noted 
carefully the difference of time at each new experiment. I thus 
found that loamy earth, containing 35 per cent, of clay, permitted 
the passage of water in half the time required by clay soil contain- 
ing 70 per cent, of clay ; that loamy sand, with 15 per cent, of" clay, 
yielded the water three times more rapidly than clay soil of 70 per 
cent., etc.; and upon this I based the calculation of the distance 
proper for the distance apart of the drains, as given in the following 
table : 

per cent, clay in 



1 


In clay soil, 


70 


2 


It 


65 


3 


u 


60 


4 


a 


55 


5 


u 


50 


6 


loamy soil 


45 


7 


u 


40 


8 


u 


35 


9 


(1 


30 


10 


u 


25 


11 


loamy sand 


20 


12 


(1 


15 


13 


u 


10 


14 


sand 


5 


15 


in sand at 






2 : 


rods, 






2 


(( 


3 feet. 


2 


II 


6 


II 


3 


•(I 


9 


11 


3 


II 


— 




3 


11 


4 


It 


3 


11 


8 


a 


4 


II 


— 




4 


II 


6 


II 


5 


II 


— 




5 


II 


6 


11 


6 


II 


— 




6 


II 


6 


II 


7 


II 


— 




7 


11 


7 


II 


8 


u 


6 


II 



16 in granular sand 

"In turf and moor soils, devoid of clay or muck, the calculation 
resulted the same as in No. 12, and where many vegetable remains 
existed, as in No. 14. 

"In calcareous soils, I found the percentage like that in clay 
soils. 

" In the experiments afterward instituted, in the construction of 
drains, these calculations were verified exceedingly well, and they 
have been the basis of all my plans since then. 

" That departures from this are required, for draining springs and 
ponds, is naturally to be supposed. Such cases require the techni- 
cal knowledge of the drainer, and do not permit the application of 
fixed rules." 

In draining meadows, which are designed to be used as 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 311 

such, Still a rule of distance is difficult to give, because 
stagnant water in them is due to such various causes, that 
it would be difficult to meet each case by general rules. 
If the soil is uniform, and if the water be temporarily col- 
lected, the calculation may be made according to the rules 
given by Wauer, for fields, but make the distances about 
one third greater. 

In most cases, it will be sufficient to traverse the so- 
called swales with single drains. We recently read an 
essay upon draining which stated that meadows should be 
drained in the same manner as fields, but that the pipes 
should be smaller, so that the water might run off more 
slowly. 

That would be sure to convert a meadow into a swamp. 
The pipes being filled, the remaining water would be 
forced into the ground, there to remain. 

We must repeat, that too great a distance between 
drains, takes the water off too slowly, and no good is ac- 
complished, because the interspace shows no effect of 
drainage, and nothing is left but the expensive method 
of putting down intermediate drains. 

According to John,^ the following distances, in the 
various kinds of soil named, are in accordance with the 
latest German experience, in this respect, where the drains 
are four feet deep. 

I. Heavy clay soil, - - - - - 20 to 24 feet. 

II. Clay soil, 24 to 30 " 

III. Loamy soil, ... - 30 to 36 " 

IV. Light loamy soil, - - - • - 48 " 
V. Sandy loamy soil, .... 60 " 

VI. Very light soil, 80 to 120 " 

Schonermark, in draining in Brunswick, established the 

* Jahrbuch, 1854, I, 74. 



312 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



folio \Ying distances and depths for the various kinds of 
soil : 



Soils. 


Drain 4 


Drain 3 feet 


Drain 3 




feet deep. 


6 in. deep. 


feet deep. 


I. Lime soil (soils containing from 80 to 


feot apart. 


feet apart. 


feet apart. 


60 per cent, of lime, and a mixture of 








sand, clay and humus). Clay soil con- 








taining 50 per cent, and upward of 








clay, ----- 


24 to 32 


21 to 28 


18 to 24 


II. Marl soil (containing 10 to 30 per 








cent, of lime, and is mixed with clay, 








sand and humus), 


32 to 40 


28 to 35 


24 to 30 


III. Loamy soil, containing sand and 








clay, ----- 


40 to 48 


35 to 42 


30 to 36 


IV. Sandy loam, containing from 10 to 








30 per cent, of sand. 


48 to 56 


42 to 49 


36 to 42 


V. Loamy sand, containing 30 to bO per 








cent, of sand, and humus soil, con- 








taining 30 to 50 per cent, of humus, 


56 to 64 


49 to 56 


42 to 48 


VI. Sandy soil, containing 50 to 70 per 








cent, of sand, and mixed with clay, 








humus, marl, etc., - - - 


64 to 72 


56 to 63 


48 to 84 



The table on next page, copied from ITeyineberg' s Jahr- 
huch Landivirthschaff, shows the greatest length of drain 
admissible, according to the fall and distance between the 
drains. For example, the drains are three rods apart, 
and the fall is one inch per rod, how long may the drain 
be made with one inch tile? Find the table for one inch 
tile ; then under the figure 3 in the first horizontal col- 
umn (the figures in this column indicate the width be- 
tween the drains in rods), find the number (1) corres- 
ponding with the fall, in the first left hand vertical col- 
umn (which in this case will be 28) ; the number thus in- 
dicated will be the greatest possible length that the drain 
can be made to be effective. Should the fall be 3 inches 
per rod, the drain may be increased to 50 rods ; or if 1 J 
inch pipe is used, and the fall is one inch, the drain may 
be 79 rods in length. 

From this table it will be seen that 1^^ inch pipe will 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 



318 



answer for almost all the minor drains that will be prob- 
ably made in this country. 



1 ■o 

.S.SS 




One inch pipe tilo 






One and one fourth 


inch pipe tile. 




IK 


2 


2K 


3 


3K 


4 


4K 


IK 

23 


2 
18 


2K 
14 


3 
12 


3K 
10 


4 
9 


4!-< 


1-16 


11 


8 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


8 


1/^ 


17 


13 


10 


9 


7 


7 


6 


39 


29 


23 


19 


17 


15 


13 


Va 


27 


20 


16 


13 


11 


10 


9 


46 


35 


28 


23 


20 


18 


16 


V,. 


39 


29 


24 


19 


17 


15 


13 


67 


50 


40 


33 


29 


25 


23 


% 


49 


36 


29 


24 


21 


18 


16 


86 


64 


52 


43 


37 


32 


29 


1 


66 


41 


33 


28 


24 


21 


18 


99 


74 


59 


49 


42 


37 


33 


IK 


70 


53 


42 


35 


30 


26 


23 


125 


93 


75 


62 


53 


47 


42 


2 


83 


62 


50 


41 


37 


31 


27 


146 


108 


87 


72 


62 


64 


48 


2^ 


93 


69 


66 


46 


40 


35 


31 


163 


122 


98 


82 


70 


61 


54 


3 


100 


76 


60 


60 


43 


38 


33 


179 


134 


107 


89 


77 


67 


69 


3^ 


109 


82 


66 


65 


47 


41 


37 


195 


146 


117 


97 


83 


73 


65 


4 


117 


88 


70 


59 


50 


44 


39 


209 


157 


126 


105 


89 


78 


69 


4^ 


126 


94 


76 


63 


54 


47 


42 


222 


166 


133 


111 


95 


83 


74 


6 


133 


100 


80 


67 


57 


50 


44 


235 


176 


141 


118 


101 


88 


78 


6 


155 


116 


93 


77 


66 


58 


52 


259 


194 


165 


129 


111 


97 


86 







no an 


d one 


half I 


nch p 


ipe ti 


e. 


One and three 


fourths inch pipe tile. 


f^'o p. 


IK 


2 


2K 


3 


3K 


4 


4K 


IK 

45 


2 
34 


2K 

27 


3 
23 


3K 

19 


4 
17 


4K 


1-16 


32 


24 


19 


16 


14 


12 


10 


15 


% 


52 


39 


31 


26 


22 


19 


17 


69 


51 


41 


34 


29 


26 


23 


Va, 


80 


60 


48 


40 


37 


30 


27 


107 


80 


64 


54 


46 


40 


36 


v-, 


109 


82 


66 


66 


47 


41 


39 


161 


120 


96 


80 


69 


60 


54 


% 


140 


105 


84 


70 


60 


52 


47 


203 


152 


121 


101 


87 


76 


68 


1 


157 


118 


94 


79 


67 


59 


52 


233 


175 


140 


117 


100 


87 


78 


1'/? 


200 


146 


120 


100 


86 


75 


67 


291 


218 


176 


146 


125 


109 


97 


2 


221 


166 


132 


110 


95 


83 


73 


341 


256 


206 


137 


146 


128 


114 


2K 


257 


192 


154 


128 


no 


96 


86 


390 


292 


234 


195 


167 


146 


130 


3 


286 


214 


172 


143 


123 


107 


95 


418 


313 


251 


209 


179 


157 


139 


3K 


311 


233 


186 


155 


133 


117 


104 


450 


337 


270 


225 


193 


169 


150 


4 


351 


248 


199 


166 


142 


124 


110 


487 


366 


292 


244 


209 


184 


162 


4K 


352 


265 


212 


177 


151 


132 


118 


517 


388 


310 


259 


222 


194 


172 


5 


371 


278 


223 


186 


159 


139 


124 


545 


408 


327 


272 


233 


204 


184 


6 


399 


299 


239 


199 


171 


149 


133 


595 


446 


367 


297 


255 


223 


198 



As the cost of tile for draining may, perhaps, determine 
the distance between drains with some persons, in absence 
of any experimental or scientific reason, we have deemed 
it proper in this place to say a few words about the cost 
of tile, and to give a table from which the number of tiles 
28 



314 LAND DRAINAGE, 

necessary to drain an acre at several distances between 
the drains. 

The cost of tile draining is made up of three items — the 
digging, the price of tiles at the kiln, and the expense of 
hauling them. It will readily be seen that each of these 
may vary considerably, and the total cost of the improve- 
ment be influenced accordingly. 

If tiles are made on the farm, or in the immediate neigh- 
borhood, the cost of hauling is reduced to its lowest figure. 
Where they must be drawn several miles, the trouble and 
expense are great ; five hundred of the smallest size being 
all that can readily and safely be put in a common two- 
horse wagon. Taking this item into account, the desira- 
bleness of concert of action among farmers is apparent; 
if several can agree to enter upon such improvements at 
the same time, they may manufacture in company, or, what 
is better, give their contracts to the nearest and best brick- 
maker, and get the tiles made at the most convenient 
point. Every farmer should consider it his interest to 
sustain any tile maker who has enterprise enough to com- 
mence the manufacture in his vicinity. There ought to 
be one or more good tile yards established immediately in 
every township in the state. 

The price of tiles must vary in difi'erent localities, the 
cost of manufacture depending on the nature of the clay, 
the price of fuel and of labor. But these matters relating 
to the manufacture of tiles may be deferred to another 
time. Tiles are at present sold in Ohio at prices ranging 
from $8 to $12 per 1000 for the smallest size, or two inches 
in bore. Four inch tiles are about double the cost of the 
two inch ; and six inch tiles are about double the cost of 
the four inch. A thousand tiles of ordinary length will 
lay sixty rods ; thus, at the lowest figure stated above, the 
cost of tiles is a trifle over a shilling a rod. 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 315 

The cost of digging, where men accustomed to the work, 
and proper tools can be obtained, Avill not exceed a shilling 
a rod for a three feet drain. The cost is proportionally 
greater for deep drains than for shallow ones ; so that if 
the depth is diminished one third, the price should be less- 
ened one half; or, if the depth is increased a third, about 
half the original price should be added. It will doubtless 
appear to some that such prices are low, compared with 
what they have been used to pay for ditching ; this differ- 
ence arises from the fact that not more than a third of 
the earth is removed in making a drain, that must needs 
be lifted in making an open ditch of the same depth. 

The cost of thorough draining will depend, of course, 
on the frequency of the drains. At two rods asunder, 
there will be eighty rods to the acre ; and this, at the 
prices already stated, or two shillings a rod, will amount 
to $20. To this it will sometimes be necessary to add ten 
per cent, for main drains. In general, about one tenth 
of all the drains in a field are main drains, and made at 
nearly double the cost of the minor drains. The profit 
or loss of underdraining, at such prices, will next be con- 
sidered. 

Table No. 1 presents, in the first column, the distance 
between the drains in feet ; the second column shows the 
number of rods of drain in an acre — always supposing 
that the field to be drained is a square one — that is, a 
rectangle, having the opposite sides equal. The remain- 
ing columns show the number of tile of the different lengths 
required to lay the drains in an acre. 

Suppose an acre is to be drained, with the distance of 
20 feet between the drains ; find the number 20 in the first 
column ; and in the next column, opposite 20, will be found 
the number of rods of drain, 20 feet apart, in an acre ; and 
in the fourth column will be found the number (2,011) of 



316 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



tile, 13 Indies long — the usual length — required for the 
drains. Now, at $8 per 1000, the tile will cost $16 08; 
but, if the drains are placed 30 feet apart, the cost of tile 
will be $10 72 only. 



TABLE NO. 1. 



Width 


Length of 






No. of Tiles per acre. 






be- 


drains p 
















tween 


in statute rods 














drains. 


of 5)^ 


yards. 


Length 


Length 


Length 


Length 


Length 


Length 


Foet. 


Rods. 


Yds. 


12 in. 


13 in. 


U in. 


15 in. 


10 iti. 


18 in. 


9 


293 


IK 


4840 


4468 


4149 


3872 


3630 


3227 


10 


264 




4356 


4021 


3734 


3485 


3267 


2904 


11 


240 




3960 


3656 


3395 


3168 


2970 


2640 


12 


220 




3630 


3351 


3112 


2904 


2723 


2420 


13 


203 


K 


3351 


3094 


2873 


2681 


2514 


2234 


14 


188 


3^ 


3112 


2873 


2667 


2490 


2334 


2075 


15 


176 




3904 


2G81 


2490 


2324 


2178 


1936 


16 


165 




2723 


2514 


2334 


2178 


2042 


1815 


17 


155 


IM 


2563 


2366 


2197 


2050 


1922 


1709 


18 


146 


3% 


2420 


2234 


2075 


1936 


1815 


1614 


19 


138 


5K 


2293 


2117 


1966 


1835 


1720 


1529 


20 


132 




2178 


2011 


1867 


1743 


1634 


1452 


21 


125 


4 


2075 


1915 


1778 


1660 


1556 


1383 


22 


120 




1980 


1828 


1698 


1584 


1485 


1320 


23 


114 


4K 


1894 


1749 


1624 


1516 


1421 


1263 


24 


110 




1815 


1676 


1556 


1452 


1362 


1210 


25 


105 


3% 


1743 


1609 


1494 


1394 


1307 


1162 


26 


101 


3 


• 1676 


1647 


1137 


1341 


1257 


1117 


27 


97 


4K 


1614 


1490 


1383 


1291 


1210 


1076 


28 


94 


IK 


1656 


1437 


1334 


1245 


1167 


1038 


29 


91 


K 


1503 


1387 


1288 


1202 


1127 


1002 


30 


88 




1452 


1341 


1245 


1162 


1089 


968 


31 


85 


K 


1406 


1298 


1205 


1125 


1054 


937 


32 


82 


2K 


1362 


1257 


1167 


1089 


1021 


908 


33 


80 




1320 


1219 


1132 


1056 


990 


880 


34 


77 


3K 


1282 


1183 


1099 


1025 


961 


855 


35 


75 


2K 


1245 


1149 


1067 


996 


934 


830 


36 


73 


IK 


1210 


1117 


1038 


968 


908 


807 


37 


71 


2 


1178 


1087 


1010 


942 


883 


785 


38 


69 


2y^ 


1147 


1059 


983 


918 


860 


765 


39 


67 


3K 


1117 


1032 


958 


894 


838 


745 


40 


66 




1089 


1006 


934 


872 


817 


726 


41 


64 


2% 


1063 


981 


911 


850 


797 


709 


42 


62 


iK 


1038 


958 


889 


830 


778 


692 


43 


61 


2K 


1014 


936 


869 


811 


760 


676 


44 


60 




990 


914 


849 


793 


743 


660 


45 


68 


^K 


968 


894 


830 


775 


726 


646 


46 


57 


2K 


947 


875 


812 


758 


711 


632 


47 


55 


1 


927 


857 


795 


742 


696 


618 


43 


55 




908 


838 


778 


727 


681 


605 


49 


53 


4% 


889 


821 


762 


712 


667 


593 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 
Table No. 1 — Continued. 



317 



Width 


Length of 






No. of Tiles per aero. 






be- 


drains per acre, 














tween 


ill statute rods, 














drains. 


of 51^ yards. 


Length 


Length* 


Length 


Length 


Length 


Length 


Feet. 


Rods. Yds. 


12 in. 


13 in. 


14 in. 


15 in. 


lU in. 


18 in. 


60 


52 4K 


872 


805 


747 


697 


654 


581 


61 


51 41^ 


855 


787 


733 


084 


641 


570 


52 


50 414 


838 


774 


719 


671 


629 


559 


63 


49 43^ 


822 


759 


705 


658 


617 


548 


64 


48 5 


807 


745 


692 


646 


605 


538 


56 


48 


792 


732 


679 


634 


594 


528 


56 


47 % 


778 


719 


667 


623 


584 


619 


57 


46 \% 


765 


706 


656 


612 


574 


510 


58 


46 2% 


752 


694 


644 


601 


564 


501 


59 


44 4 


739 


682 


633 


591 


554 


492 


60 


44 


726 


671 


623 


581 


545 


484 


61 


43 IK 


715 


660 


613 


572 


536 


477 


62 


42 3^ 


703 


649 


603 


663 


527 


469 


63 


41 5 


692 


639 


593 


564 


619 


461 



Table No. 2 shows the number of tiles of the length 
of 12, 13, or 14 inches, requisite to lay any number of 
rods of drain, from one rod up to 10,000 rods. Suppose 
it is required to know what number of 13 inch tile will 
be required to lay 8,765 rods of drain. From the table 
we find that 



5,000 rods require 


76154 tiles 


3,000 


- 45693 " 


700 » 


10662 " 


65 " 


990 " 



8,765 



133499 " 



318 



LAND DRAINAGE. 
TABLE NO. 2. 



Tiles required for Drains. 


Tiles required for Drains. 


Length 


Length 


Length 


Lengtli 


Length 


Length 


Length 


Lengtli 


of 


of tile 


of tile 


of tile 


of 


of tile 


of tile 


of til»> 


drains 


VI 


1.3 


14 


drains 


12 


13 


U 


in ruils. 


inches. 


inches. 


inches. 


in rods. 


inches. 


inches. 


inches. 


1 


17 


16 


16 


41 


677 


626 


680 


2 


33 


31 


29 


42 


693 


640 


694 


3 


60 


46 


43 


43 


710 


655 


609 


4 


66 


61 


67 


44 


726 


671 


623 


5 


83 


77 


71 


45 


743 


686 


637 


6 


99 


92 


85 


46 


769 


701 


661 


7 


116 


107 


99 


47 


776 


716 


665 


8 


132 


122 


114 


48 


792 


732 


679 


9 


149 


138 


128 


49 


809 


747 


693 


10 


165 


153 


142 


60 


825 


762 


708 


11 


182 


168 


156 


51 


842 


777 


722 


12 


198 


183 


170 


52 


858 


792 


736 


13 


215 


198 


184 


53 


875 


808 


750 


14 


231 


214 


198 


54 


891 


823 


764 


15 


248 


229 


213 


65 


908 


838 


778 


16 


264 


244 


227 


56 


924 


853 


792 


17 


281 


259 


241 


57 


941 


869 


807 


18 


297 


276 


256 


68 


957 


884 


821 


19 


314 


290 


269 


69 


974 


899 


836 


20 


330 


305 


283 


60 


990 


914 


849 


21 


347 


320 


297 


61 


1007 


930 


863 


22 


363 


336 


312 


62 


1023 


945 


877 


23 


380 


361 


326 


63 


1040 


960 


891 


24 


396 


366 


340 


64 


1056 


975 


906 


25 


413 


• 381 


354 


66 


1073 


990 


920 


26 


429 


396 


368 


70 


1J15 


1067 


990 


27 


446 


412 


382 


80 


1320 


1219 


1132 


28 


462 


427 


396 


90 


1485 


1371 


1273 


29 


479 


442 


411 


100 


1650 


1524 


1415 


30 


495 


457 


426 


200 


3300 


3047 


2829 


31 


612 


473 


439 


300 


4950 


4570 


4243 


32 


528 


488 


453 


400 


6600 


6093 


6658 


33 


645 


503 


466 


600 


8250 


7616 


7072 


34 


661 


518 


481 


600 


9900 


9139 


8486 


35 


578 


534 


495 


700 


11550 


10662 


9900 


36 


694 


649 


610 


800 


13200 


12185 


11315 


37 


611 


664 


624 


900 


14860 


1S708 


12729 


38 


627 


679 


638 


1000 


1650U 


15231 


14143 


39 


644 


594 


662 


3000 


49500 


45693 


42429 


40 


660 


610 


566 


5000 


82500 


76154 


70715 



Table No. 3 shows the number of rods in drains at 
distances of 15 to 42 feet apart, in tracts of l^nd from 
one fourth of an acre to 100 acres; and, in fact, to any 
number of acres exceeding 100, by multiplication or ad- 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 



319 



dition. Suppose the number of rods of drains 18 feet 
apart in a tract of 285 acres be required. From the table : 



14666 rods, 
2 


H 


yards 


in 100 acres 


29332 " 


Ih 


u 


•' 200 " 


11733 " 


IJ 


u 


" 80 " 


733 " 


If 


u 


a 5 a 



41798 " " " 285 " 

If the number of 13 inch tile be required, by referring 
to Table No. 2, it will be seen that 

5000 rods require - - - 76154 tiles. 



40000 




1000 




700 




90 




8 




41798 





609232 




15231 




10662 




1371 




122 





636618 



TABLE NO. 3.— LENGTH OF DRAINS. 
Distance between Drains 15 feet. 



Acres. 


Length in rods. 


Acres. 


Length in rods. 


Acres. 


Length in rods. 




Kods. Yards. 




Kods. Yards. 




Rods. Yards. 


% 


44 


15 


2640 


32 


5632 


Yt. 


88 


16 


2816 


33 


5808 


% 


132 


17 


2992 


34 


5984 


1 


176 


18 


3168 


35 


6160 


2 


362 


19 


3344 


36 


6336 


3 


528 


20 


3520 


37 


6512 


4 


704 


21 


3696 


38 


6678 


5 


880 


22 


3872 


39 


6864 


6 


1056 


23 


4048 


40 


7040 


7 


1232 


24 


4224 


50 


8800 


8 


1408 


25 


4400 


60 


10560 


9 


1584 


26 


4576 


70 


12320 


10 


1760 


27 


4752 


SO 


14080 


11 


1936 


28 


4928 


90 


15840 


12 


2112 


29 


5104 


100 


17600 


13 


2288 


30 


5280 






14 


2464 


31 


5456 

1 







320 



LAND DRAINAGE. 

Table No. 3 — Continued. 



Distance between Drains 


Distance between Drains 


Distance between Drains 




18 feet. 






21 feet 






21 feet. 




Lengtli 


in rods. 




Lengtli 


in rods. 




Lengtli in rods. 


Acres. 


Kods. 


Yards. 


Acres. 


Rods. 


Yards. 


Acres. 


Hods. Yards. 


K 


36 


3% 


K 


31 


2^ 


K 


27 2% 


K 


73 


IM 


1/ 


62 


^K 


K 


55 


% 


110 




'% 


94 


IK 


K 


82 2K 


1 


146 


3% 


1 


125 


4 


1 


110 


2 


293 


]% 


2 


251 


2^ 


2 


220 


3 


440 




3 


377 


K 


3 


330 


4 


586 


3% 


4 


502 


iK 


4 


440 


5 


733 


1% 


5 


628 


334 


5 


550 


6 


880 




6 


754 


IK 


6 


660 


7 


1026 


3% 


7 


880 




7 


770 


8 


1173 


Wi 


8 


1005 


4 


8 


880 


9 


1320 




9 


1131 


2li 


9 


990 


10 


1466 


S% 


10 


1257 


K 


10 


1100 


11 


1613 


m 


11 


1382 


4% 


11 


1210 


12 


1760 




12 


1608 


3}i 


12 


1320 


13 


1906 


3M 


13 


1634 


IK 


13 


1430 


14 


2053 


1% 


14 


1760 




14 


1540 


15 


2200 




15 


1885 


4 


15 


1660 


16 


2346 


3% 


16 


2011 


2^4 


16 


1760 


17 


2493 


m 


17 


2137 


K 


17 


1870 


18 


2640 




18 


2262 


iK 


18 


1980 


19 


2786 


m 


19 


2388 


^'A 


19 


2090 


20 


2933 


IK 


20 


2514 


IK 


20 


2200 


21 


3080 




21 


2640 




21 


2310 


22 


3226 


^x 


22 


2765 


4 


22 


2420 


23 


3373 


\% 


23 


2891 


2K 


23 


2530 


24 


3520 




24 


3017 


K 


24 


2640 


25 


3666 


3M 


25 


3142 


4-K 


25 


2750 


26 


3813 


Wa. 


26 


3268 


314 


26 


2860 


27 


3960 




27 


3394 


IK 


27 


2970 


28 


4106 


Wa 


28 


3620 




28 


3080 


29 


4253 


1% 


29 


3654 


4 


29 


3190 


30 


4400 




30 


3771 


2J4 


30 


3300 


31 


4546 


3% 


31 


3897 


K 


31 


3410 


32 


4693 


1% 


32 


4022 


4M 


32 


3520 


33 


4840 




33 


4148 


3K 


33 


3630 


34 


4986 


3% 


34 


4274 


IK 


34 


3740 


:5 


5133 


IM 


34 


4400 




35 


3850 


36 


5280 




36 . 


4525 


4 


36 


3960 


37 


5426 


3M 


37 


4651 


2K 


37 


4070 


38 


5573 


\y^ 


38 


4777 


K 


38 


4180 


39 


5720 




39 


4902 


4K 


39 


4290 


40 


5866 


Wa 


40 


5028 


■i'A 


40 


4400 


50 


7333 


IK 


50 


6285 


4 


50 


5500 


60 


8800 




60 


7542 


m 


60 


6600 


70 


10266 


SK 


70 


8800 




70 


7700 


80 


11733 


IK 


80 


10057 


K 


80 


8800 


90 


13200 




90 


11314 


IK 


90 


I 9900 


100 


146G6 


SK 


100 


12571 


214 


100 


11000 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 
Table No. 3 — Continued. 



321 



Distance between Drains 


Distance between Drains 


Distance between Drains 


27 feet. 




30 feet. 




33 feet. 




Lengtli in rods. 


Acres. 


Length in rods. 




Length in rods. 


Acres. 


Rods. Yards. 


Eods. Yards. 


Acres. 


Rods. Yards. 


J^ 


24 2K 


% 


22 


% 


20 


^ 


48 5 


Y 


44 


K 


40 


M 


73 ]% 


H 


66 


% 


60 


1 


97 41^ 


1 


88 


1 


80 


2 


195 3 


2 


176 


2 


160 


3 


293 \% 


3 


264 


3 


240 


4 


391 K 


4 


352 


4 


320 


5 


488 5 


5 


440 


5 


400 


6 


686 3% 


6 


528 


6 


480 


7 


684 2>^ 


7 


616 


7 


560 


8 


782 IK 


8 


704 


8 


640 


9 


880 


9 


792 


9 


720 


10 


977 4>i 


10 


880 


10 


800 


11 


1075 3 


11 


968 


11 


880 


12 


1173 1% 


12 


1056 


12 


960 


13 


1271 li 


13 


1144 


13 


1040 


14 


1368 5 


14 


1232 


14 


1120 


15 


1466 3M 


15 


1320 


15 


1200 


16 


1564 2>^ 


16 


1408 


16 


1280 


17 


1662 1% 


17 


1496 


17 


1360 


18 


1760 


18 


1584 


18 


1440 


19 


1857 AM 


19 


1672 


19 


1520 


20 


1955 3 


20 


1760 


20 


1600 


21 


2053 1% 


21 


1848 


21 


1680 


22 


2151 y. 


22 


1936 


22 


1760 


23 


2248 5 


23 


2024 


23 


1840 


24 


2346 3% 


24 


2112 


24 


1920 


25 


2444 2y2 


25 


2200 


25 


2000 


26 


2542 \\i 


26 


2288 


26 


2080 


27 


2640 


27 


2376 


27 


2160 


28 


2737 41^ 


28 


2464 


28 


2240 


29 


2835 3 


29 


2552 


29 


2320 


30 


29.33 1% 


30 


2040 


30 


2400 


31 


3031 Yi 


31 


2728 


31 


2480 


32 


3128 5 


82 


2816 


32 


2560 


33 


3226 3?^ 


33 


2904 


33 


2640 


34 


3324 2)4 


34 


2992 


34 


2720 


35 


3422 11^ 


35 


3080 


35 


2800 


36 


3520 


36 


3168 


36 


2880 


37 


3617 A]4, 


37 


3256 


37 


2960 


38 


3715 3 


38 


3344 


38 


3040 


39 


3813 1% 


39 


3432 


39 


3120 


40 


3911 K 


40 


3520 


40 


3200 


60 


4888 5 


50 


4400 


50 


4000 


60 


5866 Z% 


60 


5280 


60 


4800 


70 


6844 2>^ 


70 


6160 


70 


5600 


80 


7822 1% 


80 


7040 


80 


6400 


90 


8800 


90 


7920 


90 


7200 


100 9777 iM 


100 


8800 


100 


8000 



322 






LAND DRAINAGE. 














T.vni.E 


No. ^—Coiiihiiu'd. 








Distance betweei 


Brains 


Distance between Drains 


Distance between Drains 




36 fret. 






3t» feet. 




42 feet. 






Length 


n roils. 




Length in rod.'*. 




Length 


n rods. 


Acres. 


Kods. 


Yards. 


Acres. 


Hods. Yards. 


Acres. 


Kods. 


Yards. 


y^ 


18 


1% 


M 


16 5 


14 


15 


4 


K 


36 


3% 


'A 


33 4% 


'A 


31 


2y 


Va 


55 




% 


50 4% 


% 


47 


% 


1 


73 


\% 


1 


67 -S-K 


1 


62 


Wa 


2 


146 


Wa 


2 


135 2 


2 


125 


4 


3 


220 




3 


203 }4 


3 


188 


3% 


4 


293 


IH 


4 


270 434 


4 


251 


234 


5 


267 


3M 


5 


338 214 


5 


314 


IK 


6 


440 




6 


406 % 


6 


377 


% 


7 


513 


1% 


7 


473 4% 


7 


440 




8 


586 


3% 


8 


541 3 


8 


502 


4M 


9 


660 




9 


609 134 


9 


565 


4 


10 


733 


1% 


10 


676 5 


10 


628 


334 


11 


806 


m 


11 


744 3K 


11 


691 


IVa 


12 


880 




12 


812 1% 


12 


754 


IK 


13 


953 


m 


13 


880 


13 


817 


% 


14 


1086 


3% 


14 


947 3% 


14 


880 




15 


noo 




15 


1015 2 


15 


942 


m 


16 


1173 


IK 


16 


1083 y. 


16 


1005 


4 


17 


1246 


3% 


17 


1150 41.^ 


17 


1068 


3K 


18 


1320 




18 


1218 2y. 


18 


1131 


234 


19 


1393 


IH 


19 


1286 X 


19 


1194 


IK 


20 


1466 


3% 


20 


1353 i% 


20 


1257 


H 


21 


1540 




21 


1421 3 


21 


1320 




22 


1613 


m 


22 


1489 134 


22 


1382 


Wa 


23 


1686 


■i% 


23 


1556 5 


23 


1445 


4 


24 


1760 




24 


1624 zy. 


24 


1508 


334 


25 


1833 


Wa 


25 


1692 IK 


25 


1571 


IVa 


26 


1906 


3% 


20 


1760 


26 


1634 


IK 


27 


1980 




27 


1827 3M 


27 ■ 


1697 


Ya 


28 


2053 


IVa 


28 


1895 2 


28 


1760 




29 


2126 


w. 


29 


1963 y 


29 


1822 


m 


30 


2200 




30 


2030 414 


30 


1855 


4 


31 


2273 


m 


31 


2098 23^ 


31 


1948 


334 


32 


2346 


m 


32 


2166 X 


32 


2011 


2K 


33 


2420 




33 


2233 4% 


33 


2074 


IK 


34 


2493 


\% 


34 


2301 3 


34 


2137 


H 


35 


2566 


ZVa 


35 


2369 ly 


35 


2200 




36 


2640 




36 


2436 5 


36 


2262 


m 


37 


2713 


m 


37 


2504 33^ 


37 


2325 


4 


38 


2786 


Wa 


38 


2572 ^X 


38 


2388 


334 


39 


2860 




39 


2640 


39 


2451 


234 


40 


2933 


Wa 


40 


2707 SK 


40 


2514 


IK 


50 


3666 


Wa 


50 


3384 Sy 


50 


3142 


4:K 


60 


4400 




60 


4061 3 


60 


3771 


2K 


70 


5133 


Wa 


70 


4738 2y 


70 


4400 




80 


5866 


5% 


80 


5415 2 


80 


5028 


3K 


90 


6600 




90 


6092 ].?i 


90 


5657 


% 


100 


7333 


m 


100 


6769 134 


100 


6285 


4 



DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 



323 



Table No. 3 — Cuntitmed. 
Distance between Drains 45 feet. 



Acres. 


Length 


u rods. 


Acres. 


Length in rods. | 


Acres. 


Length 


n rods. 




Hods. 


Yards. 




Rods. 


Yiirds. 




Rods. 


Yards. 


% 


14 


3% 


15 


880 




32 


1877 


1% 


y^ 


29 


1% 


16 


938 


3H 


33 


1936 




% 


44 




17 


997 


IK 


34 


1994 


SH 


1 


68 


^K 


18 


1056 




35 


2053 


IH 


2 


117 


m 


19 


1114 


3% 


36 


2112 




3 


176 




20 


1173 


1% 


37 


2170 


s% 


4 


234 


m 


21 


1232 




38 


2229 


IK 


6 


293 


m 


22 


1290 


3% 


39 


2288 




6 


352 




23 


1349 


IM 


40 


2346 


m 


7 


410 


3% 


24 


1408 




50 


2933 


IK 


8 


469 


1% 


25 


1466 


3K 


60 


3520 




9 


528 




26 


1525 


IM 


70 


4106 


3% 


10 


586 


3M 


27 


1584 




80 


4693 


IM 


11 


655 


m 


28 


1642 


3M 


90 


5280 




12 


704 




29 


1701 


m 


100 


5866 


3M 


13 


762 


5H 


30 


1760 










14 


821 


IM 


31 


1818 


3% 









CHAPTER V. 



MANUFACTURE OP TILES 
♦ 

SELECTION OF MATERIAL. 

For drain tile it is necessary to manufacture an article 
of genuine earthenware, of sufficient strength to bear 
transportation and easy management, as well as to resist 
the action of water for a considerable period of time. 
These conditions may be found in a kind of earth less 
porous, more impervious, and finer in grain than that of 
which we make common brick ; it must be similar in every 
respect to the earth of which roof tiles are made. We 
may, therefore, adopt as a general principle that, earth fit 
to make tile, is equally suitable for drain pipes, and that 
its preparation must, in both cases, be similar. Never- 
theless, it may be remarked that flat and concave tiles for 
roofs are almost always manufactured by hand, while drain 
pipes are made cheaper and faster by machines. 

The mortar about to be used ought to possess a degree 
of ductility and firmness which is not required for roofing 
tiles, especially when they are made flat. Pipe tile ought 
to be manufactured not far from the place where they are 
to be employed, on account of the cost of transportation, 
so as to render drainage easy and cheap. The materials 
of the compound must then be such as to furnish, at any 
time, at any place, cheap, substantial pipes. 

Like other kinds of earthenware, this requires an es- 
sential distinction between the materials to be used for 
the composition of the mortar, and the elements that vail 

constitute the piece completed or baked. 
(324) 



SELECTION OF MATERIALS. 325 

In the composition of the mortar, some compound for- 
eign bodies are mechanically but not chemically combined. 
These compound bodies are materials for fabrication, but 
can be separated by water. In the baked or burnt mortar 
new combinations have been formed, against which Avater 
is powerless, so far, at all events, as to reduce the finished 
mass to the primitive materials. These combinations are 
multiple silicates, that is to say, silicic acid, combined 
with several bases — generally aluminum or lime — both in 
large quantities; at other times, and in less proportions, 
magnesia, oxide of iron, potash, soda and oxide of man- 
ganese. Burning, or baking, is the only means we have 
to obtain those fixed combinations that are subject to the 
action of neither acid nor water, and that are the more 
unalterable in proportion as the silicates are more exactly 
formed with their constituent elements, without any for- 
eign admixture. 

The essential elements are silicic acid and aluminum ; 
from these may be obtained an earthenware which is fire 
proof, that is to say, it Avill not melt in the strongest fires 
of either forge or blast furnace. Aluminum, may some- 
times be replaced in part by magnesia. The proportions 
of these indispensable elements are as follows : 

Silica, - - - - 55 to 75 per cent. 
Aluminum, - - 25 to 35 " " 

When magnesia is present, it is generally found to the 
amount of 1 to 5 per cent.; there might be found as 
much as 25 to 35 per cent. 

The accessory substances are still more variable in their 
proportions than the above ; they are 

Lime, to 19 per cent. 

Potash, - - - - to 5 " " 
Pfotoxyd of tron, - to 19 " " 



326 LAND DRAINAGE. 

These accessory elements give fusibility to earthenAvare, 
and, therefore, allow its constituent substances to combine 
in such a manner as to form a resisting body ; and this is 
performed with a temperature lower in proportion as the 
accessory elements are more abundant. In some baked 
mortars, there is carbonic acid (0 to 16 per cent.), when 
lime is present in sensible proportions. Water is almost 
always totally driven out of the mortar by the heat ; and 
is present only m the paste in preparation ; but here it 
performs an important office, by assisting to mix together 
the various materials which will bring into the paste the 
elements that we have described ; it serves also to give 
them the required softness, to endow them with a certain 
adhesive force, and to promote their plastic qualities. 

We term plasticity that quality which some soft matters 
have of assuming, under the hand of artists and mechanics, 
the forms that they wish to reproduce. We term those 
long pastes which are possessed of this quality in the high- 
est degree, and short pastes those which have it in a slight 
degree only. 

Plasticity is not absolutely indispensable for the shap- 
ing of ceramic pastes ; we can mold them, by pressing the 
materials which are in the very state of dust; but a plastic 
substance yields better to the easiest and most usual mode 
of giving shape, and it is, therefore, much more desirable. ^ 

While plasticity is a condition of the first importance, 
in order to facilitate the shaping of the mortar into the 
desired forms, it offers great inconvenience when brought 
to an excessive degree. A paste which is too plastic dries 

' A gentleman exhibited at the Ohio State Fair, at Dayton, in 1860, a tile 
machine, which made tile from hydraulic cement, without the aid of water. 
The cement, of course, possessed no plasticity, but the tile or pipes were 
made by enormous pressure. If the tile thus made were placed in drains the 
moisture of the ground would cause them to harden, so as to be serviceable 
for many years. 



SELECTION OF MATERIALS. 327 

up with difficulty, And great unevenness ; articles manu- 
factured from it are very likely, in drying, to lose their 
proper shape; they are very apt to crack, both during 
the period of desiccation, and in the bake oven or kiln. 
Excessive plasticity may be modified by other materials, 
which are either natural or artificial. 

Sand is the natural correcting or tempering material. 
All sands are composed of silicic acid, or silicum, and of 
some foreign substances, from one to 9 per cent.; these 
foreign matters are aluminum, magnesia, lime, oxyd of 
iron, potash, etc. 

The artificial tempering materials are: 1. Fragments 
of burnt brick or tile, reduced to powder. 2. Scoria, 
from the forges. 3. Sometimes sawdust. 

As far as the drain pipe is concerned, it will not be 
necessary to discuss all the other materials Avhich are used 
in the various productions of the ceramic art. 

Any kind of sand may be employed for making drain- 
age pipes, provided it be free from gravel, as it would in- 
terfere seriously with the molding. 

As to plastic materials, although they may all be used, 
their qualities must be discriminated, in order to know 
how they shall be mixed together, and what proportion 
of tempering material, that is to say, sand, ought to be 
added to them. It may happen that some kind of earth 
may be found susceptible of being employed alone, and 
without any mixture. Let us see then what qualities each 
ought to possess : 

1. The earth having received a sufficient quantity of 
water, must be malleable enough to assume all forms that 
may be wished ; it must be firm enough to preserve those 
forms ; it must be composed of particles sufficiently ad- 
herent, so that, when passing through the dye plate, this 
adherence is not impaired. 



328 LAND DRAINAGE. 

2. The earth ought not to contain any particle of pure 
chalk, even so small as the fiftieth part of an incli ; bak- 
ing it would produce lime; and lime, in contact with 
water, would slack and burst the pipe. There ought not 
to be any particle of either sulphuret of iron oi* of py- 
rites, as these would produce the same result. 

3. It must dry readily, and with evenness. 

4. The process of drying must be carried on, in such a 
manner as to evaporate the water which gave adherence 
to the particles, without producing cracks or deformities 
in the pipes. 

We will now examine the various kinds of plastic mate- 
rials which may be used in the fabrication of drainage 
pipes. 

Natural plastic materials comprise clay, and clayey 
marl. 

Clay is, in the potter's sense, an earth which forms a 
paste with water, working easily and hardening by fire. 

Clay is plastic when it contains nothing but silicum and 
aluminum. This variety of clay which often bears the 
name of potter's clay, on account of its tenacity, does not 
readily admit water to penetrate, but when saturated it is 
very retentive of moisture. 

Clay is fuliginous when it contains some lime, in the 
maximum proportion of 5 to G per cent., part of it as car- 
bonate, and part may be in the state of silicate. This 
clay is still coherent, but less tenacious than the plastic 
above mentioned. It produces a slight effervescence with 
the acids, but this effervescence, caused by an emission of 
carbonic acid gas, soon ceases. 

These two kinds of clay may be combined with an oxide 
of iron, and sometimes with particles of gypsum (sulphate 
of lime), or plaster. 

Plastic clay, when not combined by these bodies, is al- 



SELECTION OF MATERIALS. 329 

together fire proof, that is, it will not melt at any tem- 
perature of our furnaces; should these refractory quali- 
ties be wanted for any purpose, that clay must be tem- 
pered by using sand formed of pure silicum or flint. 

In regard to drain pipes, both kinds of clay must be 
tempered, but with common materials as above described. 

In the special point of view, for which alone we are 
writing, we will say that, both plastic and fuliginous clay 
should be used only to give plasticity to other materials. 

No person can learn any trade, be it ever so simple, 
by reading alone. No matter how carefully the books 
which treat of such trade may be written, practice is nec- 
essary to perfect the workman in it. Books are a great 
auxiliary to effect a perfection of knowledge, and to those 
who have already made some progress in a practical ac- 
quaintance with any handiwork, reading greatly enhances 
their ability to pursue their occupation profitably. Those 
who have been engaged in the fabrication of pottery, 
tiles, or brick, may, by means of the theoretical informa- 
tion to be derived from books, cursorily learn sufficient of 
the operations of making drain tiles, as to succeed in their 
fabrication very Avell. 

Clay suitable for drain tile is such as is proper for the 
fabrication of roofing tile, or even fine brick. It should 
not be too poor, or meager of clay constituents, and 
should be free from pebbles and pieces of limestone, al- 
though it is an error to suppose that it should be entirely 
void of lime, as this, in small quantity, and very evenly 
commingled, assists very much in melting the mass when 
subjected to heat. If the amount of sand contained in 
the clay intended for drain pipe be too small, in propor- 
tion to the other constituents, they are too easily curved 
in handling before dry, and are very liable to crack, both 
while drying and subjected to heat; and, therefore, when 
29 



330 LAND DRAINAGE. 

a bed of clay is worked for this manufacture, too pure 
for the purpose, a proper proportion of sand must be 
added, to give the due consistence to the tiles when 
molded. Too great care in preparing the materials, can 
not be taken, and the results of proper precautions in 
this particular, will be a diminution of the average cost 
of the product. 

Clays of Ohio. — Fortunately for the farmers of Ohio, 
clay suitable for tile making may be found in nearly every 
part of the state; in fact, almost any clay that will make 
good bricks, may, with care, be made into tiles. The 
principal requisite is, that the tile maker thoroughly un- 
derstand the character of the material he uses. 

The blue clay which lies directly upon the shale, or 
limestome, in most of the northern and north-western 
counties of Ohio, has been found to be well adapted to 
the manufacture of tiles. This clay contains a large 
amount of carbonate of lime, in a state of minute division ; 
it also contains water-worn fragments of limestome, shale 
and primitive rocks. It varies considerably in the degree 
of plasticity, and in the amount of stones in different lo- 
calities. In one tile yard, near Cleveland, it is taken di- 
rectly from the bed to the tile machine, without the need 
of any tempering whatever. In general, however, it re- 
quires much working, and the employment of the screen 
or rollers. 

Above the blue elay, there is, in the same localities, a 
layer of yellow clay. It contains nearly the same rocky 
fragments; it has but little lime diffused through it, but 
contains much more oxide of iron. This clay is exten- 
sively used for brick making, and is found'to make excel- 
lent tiles. The use of the screw or roller mill, is gene- 
rally needed where the yellow clay is used. The pottery 
clays, peculiar to the coal regions, will, of course, make 



SELECTION OF MATERIALS. 831 

excellent tiles. It has, however, been supposed by 
some, that tiles should be porous, so as to permit the 
water to filter through their sides, and, therefore, that 
clay suitable for stoneware or earthenware, would not be 
proper for tiles. This opinion is founded on an error, 
for the water in drains does not filter through the tiles, 
but enters at the joints, and there is not the least objec- 
tion to having tiles made of the hardest and most com- 
pact material. Indeed, the manufacturing of tiles from 
the better clays has this advantage, that they may be 
made much lighter, and therefore cost less for carriage. 

The marly clays of south-western Ohio, are well 
adapted to tile making. The lime acts as a bind or flux, 
to effect the semi-fusion of the other constituents, and 
extremely hard and durable tiles are made of such mate- 
rial, the main point being to secure a thorough burning. 

In almost every township of the state are small swamps, 
or basins, with clayey bottoms. The clay of these 
swamps, although identical in composition with that of 
the surrounding uplands, has a far greater value for tile 
making. From being kept constantly wet, it possesses a 
degree of solidity,-uniformity of texture and plasticity, 
that can only be given to the clay of hillsides, after much 
working. In many places, these swamp clays require no 
labor to bring them to a proper condition for use. 

The following letter from a very successful tile maker 
in Ohio, with respect to materials for tiles, may be of in- 
terest to those who intend manufacturing their own tiles : 

"Woodstock, Champaign county, 0. 

Dear Sir — As I promised you when at Columbus I would send 
you a description of the different kinds of clay suitable for making 
drain tile, and where it is likely to be found, I now undertake to 
communicate to you what I know about it. 

Clay, suitable for making tile for underground draining, may be 
generally found through that portion of Ohio that I am acquainted 



832 LAND DRAINAGE. 

witli, in the following descriljcd localities, viz : in small pond holes 
(such as contain Abater the greater part of the year), by some called 
cat swamps, usually found on white oak ridges. The clay found in 
these holes is rather on the blue order, from a bluish black to a 
blue gray color. This clay is of a depth of from two to ten feet. 
There is also a clay found on almost all white oak land that will 
answer to make tile of, but it is not of the best quality, and some- 
what difficult to get it free from limestone gravel; this clay is of a 
reddish cast, and runs from one and a half to three feet in depth. 
There is also a clay found on low, wet prairies, where wild grass 
grows. The real blue clay in some places you will lind near the 
surface, but frequently you will have to dig from two to four feet 
before coming to it; it runs to a great depth in the ground. It re- 
quires stronger clay to make good tile than it does to make brick. 
In making brick, if your clay is too strong, you have to add s^nd 
■with the clay; but not so in making tile: the stronger the clay, the 
better the tile. My impression is, there is hardly a township in the 
state but that has clay in it suitable for making tile. 

Respectfully yours, D. Kenfield." 

One important step in the preparation of the materi- 
als is : 

Throiving up the clay before the commeneemeni of win- 
ter, as one of the principal means of success in fabricating 
good tile. Every farmer knows that afield plowed in the 
fall into rough furrows, and left fallow, becomes much 
more mellow than it would be if left undisturbed by the 
plow until spring. This effect is likewise produced in 
clay dug up and exposed to the frost during winter, and is 
produced by the expansion of the water during the pro- 
cess of freezing, which separates the particles of clay from 
each other, and thus, by lessening to some degree its ad- 
hesiveness, fits it for more easy manipulation in the process 
of fabrication. In order to secure this object most thor- 
oughly, the clay should be placed in heaps and frequently 
turned over, so as to expose all parts to the action of the 
frost, which does not readily act upon very stiff clay. A 
great saving of labor and also of time is thus secured, in- 



SELECTION OF MATERIALS. 333 

asmuch as what is done in winter leaves so much the less 
to do after making begins. Where the clay requi^-es grind- 
ing, this process may very well go on in connection with 
the digging ; for, although the clay does not grind so easily 
when first dug, there is a very great advantage in giving 
it time to become settled together and thoroughly united 
before it is used. If the grinding is done at the time of 
the manufacture, it is necessary to pug the clay or tread 
it, because it comes from the rollers in too loose a state for 
the tile machine. A few months of exposure, after grinding, 
is worth as much as pugging, and will render that opera- 
tion unnecessary. When the iron rollers are not required, 
a pug mill, similar to those used in the manufacture of 
bricks, will effect all the tempering that is needed. 

The purification of the clay intended for the manufac- 
ture of drain tile is necessary, when the material contains 
pebbles or pieces of limestone, or is too meager of clayey 
elements, and can only be effected by mixing it thoroughly 
with water, so as to dissolve it, as it were, and then permit 
the heavier matters, as pebbles, limestones and coarse 
sand, to be deposited upon the bottom of the vat or pit in 
which the operation is performed, draining off the super- 
fluous water and leaving the clay remain until evaporation 
shall have restored it to a proper degree of consistence. 

To effect this object the clay is placed in a properly 
constructed vat or pit, of suitable size, provided with a 
sliding gate, by means of which to drain off the water 
which remains after settling. The clay is then mixed with 
water and stirred until the whole mass becomes fluid ; it 
is then permitted to settle, when all the supernatant water 
can be drained off by the sliding gate ; or, after being 
reduced to a lime condition, the clay may be passed 
through a wire sieve, of suitable strength and fineness, 
which will readily separate the coarse materials from it. 



334 LAND DRAINAGE. 

This mode is more particularly applicable when the clay 
is of the desired composition, except the existence in it 
of pebbles and insoluble lumps. 

A very convenient form of a mixing pit is furnished by 
the common mortar box and bed of plasterers ; the mortar 
box may be used to mix the clay with water, and the bed 
will answer for a fit receptacle in which a complete sep- 
aration of the light and heavy materials can occur. As 
soon as this has taken place, the superabundant water can 
be removed by means of a draining gate, and the mass 
left to dry out sufficiently for working. The mixing can 
be efi"ected, where but small quantities of clay are used, 
by means of hoes, such as are used by plasterers ; but, 
when the manufacture is carried on upon a large scale, a 
suitable method is to make use of a mixing machine, the 
form and capacity of which may best be determined by 
the quantity of labor intended to be performed by it. 
The common pug mill used in brick yards maybe so modi- 
fied as to answer the purpose very well ; taking care to 
adjust it so that the clay may be mixed with a sufficient 
quantity of water before it is permitted to flow ofi" by the 
outlet gate. 

Another convenient mixing machine may be constructed 
in the following manner : Take a large hollow log, of suit- 
able length, say five or six feet ; hew out the inequalities 
with an adze, and close up the ends with pieces of strong 
plank, into which bearings have been cut to support a re- 
volving shaft. This shaft should be sufficiently thick to 
permit being transfixed with wooden pins long enough to 
reach within an inch or two of the sides of the log or 
trough, and they should be so beveled as to form in their 
aggregate shape an interrupted screw, having a direction 
toward that end of the box where the mixed clay is de- 
signed to pass out. In order to effect the mixing more 



SELECTION OF MATERIALS. o35 

thoroughly, these pins may be placed sufficiently far a},art 
to permit the interior of the box to be armed with otfier 
pins extending toward the center, between which thej can 
easily move. The whole is placed either horizontally or 
vertically, and supplied with clay and water in proper 
quantities, while the shaft is made to revolve by means of 
a sweep, with horse power, running water or steam, as the 
ease may be. The clay is put into the end farthest from 
the outlet (if horizontal), and is carried forward to it and 
mixed by the motion, and mutual action and reaction of 
the pins in the shaft and sides of the box. Iron pins may, 
of course, be substituted for the wooden ones, and have 
the advantage of greater durability and of greater strength 
in proportion to their size, and the number may therefore 
be greater in a machine of any given length. The fluid 
mass of clay and water may be permitted to fall upon a 
sieve or riddle, of heavy wire, and afterward be received 
in a settling vat, of suitable size and construction to drain 
off the water and let the clay dry out sufficiently by sub- 
sequent evaporation, A machine of this construction 
may be made of such a size that it may be put in motion 
by hand, by means of a crank, and yet capable of mixing, 
if properly supplied, clay enough to mold 800 or 1000 
pieces of drain pipe per day. 

In Ohio, where clay of suitable character is accessible 
in so very many localities, this process of mixing and pre- 
paring by filtration and settling, need be instituted only in 
very few instances ; and the question of comparative cost, 
between tiles purchased and transported from manufacto- 
ries situated w^here natural facilities are greater, and the 
home manufacture of such tiles, under the disadvantages 
accruing from less suitable clay beds, must be determined 
by every one for himself. Where the home manufacture 
of drain pipe is found preferable, the preceding hints will 



836 LAND DRAINAGE. 

be found of invaluable assistance in obviating difficulties 
otherwise almost insurmountable. 

There are other methods by which this evil may be 
remedied ; the simplest is by the use of a screen in the 
tile machine ; the other method is to crush the clay be- 
tween heavy iron rollers. The choice between these 
methods depends on the number and character of the 
stones to be disposed of. Where they are fcAV in number, 
or anything else than small limestones, the screen will be 
sufficient. If, however, the stones are numerous, and 
among them are many fragments of limestone, of the size 
of peas, or smaller, the rollers will be better than the 
screen ; for though such small limestones would not inter- 
fere with the molding, they will occasion the loss of tiles 
in burning. The presence of stones requiring the rollers, 
is no serious objection to the use of a clay, otherwise suit- 
able. Grinding the clay will add to the cost of manufac- 
turing about fifty cents a thousand. The purchaser can 
much better afford to pay this extra price, than to add 
two or three miles of carriage from some more distant 
locality. Five hundred two inch tiles will fill the box of 
a lumber wagon ; the labor of extra carriage may there- 
fore easily exceed the additional cost of manufacture. 

When the clay is not free from the admixture with stones 
or pebbles, or when it contains too little sand, some manu- 
facturers use a clay cutter ; but such a machine can not 
supersede the mixing apparatus mentioned. A very use- 
ful machine for working clay, and one that will obviate 
much hand labor, may be constructed of two or more cast 
iron rollers, referred to above, and which Ave will soon 
explain more fully, so arranged as to rotate closely to- 
gether. BetAveen such rollers the clay may be passed, 
and by this means made to assume a proper consistence 
and plasticity for molding. 



SELECTION OF MATEKIALS. 337 

Moistening the clay to a proper degree is always neces- 
sary, whether it may have been necessary to purify it by 
washing and settling or not. For this purpose, pits are 
(lug in the earth, and walled up or lined, so as to have 
five or six feet of length and breadth, and four feet in 
depth, clear. The clay is removed into these pits from 
its winter beds, and thoroughly mixed with Avater by means 
of any suitable instrument, as shovels, so as to be uni- 
formly moist throughout. The degree of moisture should 
be about equal to that of potters' luting clay, and is neces- 
sary as a preliminary step to its further working upon 
the kneading board. 

The process of preparation, carried still further upon 
the kneading board, in some foreign manufactories of 
excellent drain tile, is, in short, as follows : 

The clay is taken from the moistening pit, or settling 
bed, as the case may be, after being reduced to the proper 
condition, and spread in thin layers upon the kneading 
board. If too rich, the proper proportion of sand is 
added, and the whole mass is thoroughly trodden by men. 
It is then piled up in a low heap, and well worked by 
means of a stirrer, shaped something like a saber, fixed in 
a handle three feet long, moistened, if necessary, and 
again thoroughly trodden and kneaded by the feet. By 
these means, any pebbles existing in it may be discovered 
and removed. 

After being thus worked, it is piled up in the form of a 
large sugar-loaf, four or five feet high, and of about two 
feet base. The pile is begun by placing a layer of about 
six inches bight, and then beating this down with a large 
wooden maul, as firmly as possible. Upon this a second 
layer is superimposed, and beaten down in like manner, 
until the cone is sufficiently high. A workman then, with 
a scraper, having a handle at each end, proceeds to shave 
30 



338 LAND DRAINAGE. 

down the whole cone into thin shavings. ' By this means 
the smallest pebble is discovered and readily removed. 

The clay shavings are then cast upon another plank 
table, where it is beaten into masses of suitable size and 
form, to fit the box of the molding press. This last ham- 
mering must be performed very carefully, to drive out any 
air which may yet be confined in the clay, or intervene 
between the clay blocks and the ridges of the molding 
machine, as the existence of air in the press would mate- 
rially interfere with the perfection of the tile. 

This method of preparation has several advantages over 
those in which machinery is employed, upon the durabil- 
ity of which the profits' largely depend. A clay cutting 
machine is expensive, and yet the clay can not be best 
prepared, by its use, for the molding press. Some per- 
sons make use of sieves, or perforated plates, particularly 
when the clay has been prepared by machinery, through 
which the materials are forced to strain the pebbles re- 
maining ; but they are continually liable to become clog- 
ged, and hinder the progress of the work by the loss of 
time necessary to keep them clean, and demand a great 
deal of power to drive the clay through their small inter- 
stipes. These difiiculties are obviated by working the 
clay by hand, and a sufiicient force can be set to work 
to produce the desired amount of prepared material with 
certainty ; which can not be always accomplished by the 
best of machines, on account of the accidents to which 
they are liable. 

If the prepared clay can not, when made into masses 
for the press, be worked up fast enough, the blocks may 
be kept moist by covering them with wet cloths, until such 
time as they may be needed for use. 

It is a matter of the greatest importance that the clay 
to be worked should be properly tempered, and kept so, 



SELECTION OF MATERIALS. 339 

from the beginning of the process ; and to this point par- 
ticularly, the attention must be constantly directed, but 
especially when it is put into the press. If it be worked 
too moist, the sides of the pipes fall together, or collapse, 
as they come from the mold, or they shrink greatly and 
become curved and wry. If the clay is too stiff, the work 
is difficult, and the pipes are rough, cracked, and shelly, 
Avhen burnt, and often fall to pieces. Beside, it must be 
observed, that the same degree of moisture is not suitable 
for the fabrication of pipe tile of different diameters. 
Large pipes are made of stiffer clay than small ones. If 
clay of the proper temper for making inch pipe were 
pressed through a four inch mold, not a single piece 
would be found perfect — every one would be flattened 
and distorted. Experience is the only guide, and by this 
alone can a proper acquaintance with the matter be ob- 
tained. 

Whatever method may be adopted for removing small 
stones from the clay, it is very necessary that this clay 
should be pugged, except, indeed, in such very rare cases as 
the clay formation at Cleveland. 

1. The Pug Mill of tile yards differs little from that 
commonly used in the manufacture of bricks ; the only 
material difference being in the arms or pins by which the 
clay is tempered. The clay being used in a much stiffer 
state for tiles than bricks, iron knives -are needed for cut- 
ting the clay, in the place of wooden pins. These knives 
are made strong and sharp, and when set in the upright 
shaft, the advancing edge is raised a little, so that the ef- 
fect of their movement is to press the clay downward to- 
w^ard the opening. Instead of several iron knives, some 
use a smaller number of heavier ones, and these have 
riveted into them, at right angles, a number of short 
knives, which are so arranged as to pass each other some- 



340 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



■what closely, and serve to cut the lumps of clay to pieces 
thoroughly. 

The subjoined cut represents 
the section of an excellent pug- 
ging mill. It consists of a cyl- 
I indrical body, well bounded by 
stout hoops — the upper portion 
expands outward from the body, 
so as to form a hopper or funnel, 
into which the clay is thrown. 
A stout iron bar, a, a, is placed 
in the center of the body, so as 
to revolve. This center bar is 
furnished with stout iron arma- 
tures, 5, placed on alternate 
sides of the bar; the armatures 
furnished with three teeth, c, one 
of Avhich is placed on the upper 
side of the armature, and just 
midway between the two which 
are placed on the lower side. 
Wherever this mill has been 
used, it has given the most am- 
ple satisfaction. 
2. The Roller Mill, which is found necessary in some 
localities, consists of two iron rollers, each about fifteen 
inches in diameter. Some prefer to have one roller 
smaller than the other, so that if they revolve in equal 
times, the surface of one will move faster than that of 
the other, and combine a rubbing with the crushing move- 
ment. This, however, is probably of no real benefit, and 
is attended with the disadvantage of not feeding as well 
as a mill where the rollers are both large. The rollers 
are about 30 inches in length ; they are thick, but not 




43. — Section c 
Mill. 



SELECTION OP MATERIALS. 341 

solid, and should weigh about 400 pounds each. They 
are cast in an iron mold or chill. This secures a perfectly 
hard and smooth surface, and much more durability than 
Avhen they are cast in the common sand molds. The 
shafts of the rollers work in boxes lined with babbit 
metal, which, by means of set screws, are made to slide 
upon the iron frame, and give the rollers any degree of 
closeness that may be desired. From one eighth to one 
sixth of an inch is a distance that will permit no stones 
to pass, large enough to do mischief, either in molding or 
burning. The gearing of the mill should be so adjusted 
to the power, as to give only about ten to fifteen revolu- 
tions of the rollers in a minute. A rapid movement not 
only requires a greater force, but greatly increases the 
danger of breakage of the machinery. A plank hopper 
is set over the rollers, large enough to hold a wheelbar- 
rowful of clay. To the underside of the iron frame, on 
which the rollers rest, it is necessary to attach scrapers 
of iron or steel plate, to scrape the clay from the rollers, 
otherwise they will clog and become immovable. In set- 
ting the mill, it should, if possible, be elevated four or 
five feet above the level of the yard, and placed on hori- 
zontal timbers of some length, rather than upon posts 
set immediately under. The object of this is to secure 
space for the ground clay under the mill. The whole ex- 
pense of such a clay mill, at the Cuyahoga Steam Fur- 
nace, in Cleveland, will be about one hundred dollars. 

3. The Horse Power to drive the mill, whether the 
endless chain or lever power be used, should be arranged 
for two horses. A single horse, unless very strong, or 
the mill be geared for a slow movement, will, if there be 
many stones, or the clay be very lumpy, find the work 
rather severe. It is better, therefore, in the first instance, 
to obtain a power on wliich two horses may be used, if 



342 LAND DRAINAGE. 

necessary, or a single horse, if one is found to be suffi- 
cient. If the clay be dug up in the fall or winter, and 
thoroughly frozen, or if it be turned over and well wetted 
a few days before grinding, the work will be much easier; 
if taken fresh from a bank or hillside, and ground imme- 
diately, a good deal of additional power will be required. 

Tile 3Iachines. — It would be a useless task to describe 
all the different forms of tile presses in use. All possi- 
ble forms of construction have been used, but those 
known as Clayton's or Whitehead's, are among the prefer- 
able kinds. These machines are strong, simple, and re- 
quire comparatively little power to drive them, and are 
not apt to get out of repair. 

A passing description of both these machines, may be 
introduced with propriety. 

The clay box of the Clayton press consists of a per- 
pendicular cylinder, terminating below in the mold box. 
The cover of the clay box is a kind of piston head, which 
is made to drive the clay downward, while working, by 
means of a cogged piston rod, in the cogs of which mash 
the cogs of a small wheel, which is driven by a larger 
cog-wheel, and this in turn by a smaller cog-wheel at- 
tached to the handle or working lever of the machine. 
The pipes are pressed out at the bottom, and hanging free, 
are received upon the prongs of a fork, which correspond 
in number to the number of pipes pressed out at one time. 
The tiles are cut off by a wire, which is attached to the 
machine. Two cylinders properly belong to this kind of 
machine, one of which is removed when emptied, and 
replaced by the other full. Latterly, this machine has been 
so modified, that the pipes are forced out horizontally, 
and received upon a truckle-bed, and are not cut off until 
this is full, when they are separated and borne away upon 
forks. 



TILE MACHINES. 343 

Whitehead's machine has aflat-lying quadrangular box, 
closed by a cover. In front is the mold, and by means 
of a cogged piston rod, the plunger, consisting of the 
entire posterior end of the box, is driven forward, which 
presses the clay through the mold. When empty, the ac- 
tion is reversed, the plunger again becomes the back wall 
of the box, the cover is raised, more clay is filled in, and 
the work proceeds again. The cogged piston or plunger 
rod is worked horizontally, by means of three cog-wheels 
meeting w^ith each other, as do those of the Clayton ma- 
chine. The pipes are received upon a truckle-bed as 
they are expelled. 

Neither of these machines is without its advantages and 
defects, and yet six or eight thousand tiles can be molded 
daily, by some of the latter machines, while the former 
may be made to produce more, and is therefore better 
calculated, perhaps, for use in large manufactories. Proper 
machines can be manufactured after models, in almost any 
machine shop, but purchasers should always take care to 
secure good and warranted machines. 

Mons. Barrall, in his excellent treatise on drainage, 
gives a detailed description, accompanied by engravings, 
for the most part, of fifty-nine different tile machines, 
used in England, France, and Germany. Many of these 
machines are very expensive, but at the same time, manu- 
facture a large number of tiles daily. One machine which 
is there figured and described, would require eight active 
boys to carry away the tiles as fast as they are made — 
each boy taking six tiles at a time ! 

In this country, several gentlemen have invented ma- 
chines for the manufacture of tiles. Of those in most 
general use, in this state, are the Mattice & Penfield 
machine and the Daine's machine. We present a cut and 
a short description of each. 



344 



LAND DRAIJJAGE. 



This machine 
not only grinds the 
clay, and molds the 
tile, but places 
them upon the dry 
ing boards. 4, re- 
presents the die ; 
8, the tile; and 
2, 2, the drying 
boards, which are 
^ cut the length of 
; three tiles ; and 
-^ placed upon the 
carriage, 1, the 
portion of which, 
p^ under the machine, 
is covered with an 
endless belt, upon 
which these boards 
are placed, on the 
rear of the car- 
riage, and are 
drawn under by the tiles as they issue from the die, and 
deposit themselves upon the boards. 7, 7, is a frame, 
held together by the handles, across which small wires 
are stretched, 8, 8, for the purpose of cutting the tiles. 
This frame is movable, for the purpose of cutting the 
tiles where the end of the board occurs. 6, is the shaft 
which passes through the machine, upon which iron 
knives are fastened to grind the clay. To the lower ends, 
eccentrics are fastened, that move the plunger in the clay 
box, to which the die, 4, is fastened. 5, is the lever by 
which the cut-off plate is driven over the clay box, after 
it is filled, to prevent the clay from pushing back up in 




Fio. 44. — JIatt 



Penfield's Drain Tile Machine 



TILE MACHINES. 345 

the machine Avhen the plunger pushes it out. 9, is the 
yoke upon which a slide is fastened, driven by an eccen- 
tric on the shaft that moves the lever, the plunger throw- 
ing it back when making the plunge, where it remains, 
leaving the cavity open again. A, is the sweep. The 
machine makes a plunge at every turn of the' shaft. Less 
than one fourth of the time required to make a turn of 
the shaft, makes a plunge, which gives the man that cuts 
the tiles ample time to do so, and set them on the drying 
racks, which are placed upon the carriage for the purpose 
of moving them from the press, when dried, to the kiln. 
The American Tile maker. — The Tile Maker is only 
eight feet in length, in cl tiding aprons. It is mounted 
upon wheels, and is simple in construction, easily kept in 
order, and not liable to accident from any ordinary cause. 
It will make horseshoe or sole tile of any size, according 
to the nature of the die which may be used ; the power 
applied to drive the clay through the dies is the screw, 
worked by a small balance wheel, as shown in the engrav- 
ing. This machine is made of cast iron, and consists of 
a box set on feet, to which are attached small wheels, by 
which it can be moved from place to place. The iron box 
or frame is about five feet in length, and fourteen inches 
wide ; at one end is fastened the die, which is easily taken 
off or put on by screws. The box into which the clay is 
put, and in which the square plunger compresses the clay 
through the die, to form the tile, is the main division of 
the frame, and occupies about two feet in length ; one 
half of this division is covered with an iron plate, screwed 
down solid ; the other consists of a lid, which lifts with a 
handle, and which, when the clay is filled in is shut and 
fastened by strong iron latches on each side, which swing 
into their place by weights. The other two feet of the 
frame is occupied by the iron tube, in which the screw of 



346 



LAND DRAINAGE. 




Fio. 45. — Daine's American Tile Machine. ' 

the piston or plunger works, which is worked by a handle 
attached to a small balance wheel ; attached to the end 
where the tiles are made, is a small wooden frame, sup- 
ported on a level with the lower line of the die, by legs 
that fold up when it is taken off to be moved or packed 



TILE MACHINES. 



347 



away ; it is about three and a half feet in length, and is 
made in three divisions, of twelve inches each ; these divi- 
sions have each a series of small wooden rollers, on which 
a cloth apron moves when the clay is forced through the 
die. It comes out in three long parallel tubes of tile, 
moved and supported on these aprons, each of which is 
the length of a tile ; when the table is full, the tiles are 
cut into exact lengths by wires which are passed down 
through gauges, which form a part of the wooden frame- 
work of the apron stand. The whole is easily worked in 
a space of eight by ten feet. 

But the following cut illustrates the simplest and cheap- 
est tile machine of which we have any knowledge. We 
propose to name it the " Buckeye " tile machine ; it may 
be made by any ordinary mechanic, at a cost not exceed- 
ing $5. 




Fig. 40.— The •' Buckeye " Tile Machine. 

It consists of a stout box, A, whose sides are about 
eight inches high, twelve long, and the ends about eight 
wide. The back part of the box is occupied by a post, G, 
eight inches wide, and four thick, and from two feet to 



348 LAND DRAINAGE. 

thirty inches high. In the top of this post is fastened a 
lever, h, and to this latter is fastened the plunger, f. The 
dies are represented at B. The box is filled with mortar, 
the plunger placed on the mortar, and by the lever is 
then pushed home ; this operation forces the clay through 
the dies and forms the tiles. The carriage consists of 
twenty rollers, or five sets of four rollers each ; over each 
set of rollers is an apron — the force and weight of the tile 
issuing from the dies, causes them to rotate so as to carry 
off the tile the entire length of the carriage. When the 
tiles are forced through the die, and cover the extent of 
the carriage, the frame, E E, is closed like a lid over the 
tile, and cuts them by means of the wires, D D d d d, into 
proper lengths. They are then removed from the apron 
to the dryer. 

This machine can be operated, in all its departments, 
by a "man and a boy" — the man to fill the box, press 
the tile and cut them off, while the boy uses an implement 
shaped somewhat like the letter Y, or rather, like a two- 
pronked table fork — each prong about ten inches in length, 
and one inch in diameter. The prongs are inserted into 
the cavity of the tiles and thus borne away to the dryer. 

Not much reliance can be placed upon statements, as to 
•the amount of tiles which may be made in a day upon any 
of the machines — some days double, if not triple the 
amount can be made than on other days. Daine's ma- 
chine claims to make 250 two inch tiles in an hour — this 
would amount to 2,500 in a day of ten hours. From 700 
to 900 would be a fair day's operation on the "Buck- 
eye." 

Pressing the pipes is a very simple business. The blocks 
of clay are to be placed in the press-box, and hammered 
in the filling, to prevent the retention of any air, as this 
might occasion the bursting of the pipes, or the formation 



DRYING TILES. 349 

of air-cells in their walls, to such an extent as to render 
them useless. When the clay is properly packed in, the 
cover shut down and secured, and the press put in motion, 
the wince is turned until the truckle-bed is filled — the 
cutting apparatus is brought down, and one pressing of 
the rough pipes is completed. 

The smaller kinds of pipe must be handled by means of 
properly made forks, with extreme care, and placed upon 
a drying rack. If great care be not taken, the sides of the 
pipes Avill either fall together, or the soft clay will be 
pressed out of shape, and the passage more or less ob- 
structed. The larger kinds are taken off the truckle-bed 
by hand, and set up perpendicularly for drying. 

As all kinds of clay and loam shrink more or less in 
drying, this change of volume must be regarded in the 
pressing; and because different qualities of clay have 
different shrinkage in drying and burning ; and because 
of the different degrees of humidity at which the clay is 
worked, and the different length of time the working is 
continued, and that of drying and burning required — all 
have their influence upon this shrinkage — no rule can 
be given of general application, and every manufacturer 
must learn by experience to give a proper length and 
thickness to his drain tiles. As a general thing, if the 
green tile are 13 inch in length, they will scarcely be 12 
inches long when burned; and tile measuring 2 inches 
from outside to outside, when green, will not measure 
over If. when burned. 

Drying tiles is a matter of great importance, and spe- 
cial attention must be directed to this part of the manu- 
facturing process. The tile to be good must be dried in 
a shed ; in fact, a good shed is indispensable to the manu- 
facture of tiles. The clay must be tough to retain its 
shape after running through the dies of the tile machine; 



350 LAND DRAINAGE. 

and such clay will warp and crack in drying, unless the 
process is conducted in the shade. If the manufacture 
goes on under a shed, no time is lost on account of rainy 
days, and the tiles, while drying, are protected alike from 
rain and sun. 

A convenient arrangement of the shed is of consider- 
able importance; in form, it is long and narrow, and must 
be so set as to allow the kiln to be put directly at one end, 
while the clay bank or pit and pug mill are at the other. 
Where it is intended to make from one hundred to one 
hundred and fifty thousand tiles in a season, the shed will 
need to be sixty feet in length by eighteen in width. 
It is not necessary to put up an expensive frame, a 
lighter structure answering equally Avell. Four sills, 
either of timber or plank, may be laid upon the ground, 
and leveled to receive the feet of the posts. The sills 
are laid parallel to each other, and lengthwise of the shed 
the inner ones ten feet apart, and the outer ones, one on 
each side, and four feet from the inner. The posts made 
of scantling, four inches square, stand upon the sills, 
making two rows on either side of the central space. 
The outer posts may be six feet in length, and the inner 
eight feet six inches, the tops being halved to receive 
the rafters, of two-by-four scantling. It is convenient 
to have these posts and rafters of a uniform distance of 
six feet apart, through the whole length of the shed. 
The rafters may be tied together by three pieces of the 
same scantling, and these so placed as to give the best 
support to the roof boards, which lie lengthwise up and 
down the roof. The rafters and roof boards should be 
fourteen feet in length, so as to project about three feet 
beyond the outer posts ; this is to prevent the rain from 
beating under and injuring the tiles. The supports for the 
shelves are narrow strips of board nailed to the scantling 



DRYING TILE8. 351 

posts, the top of one being eight inches from the top of the 
next. The shelf boards should be twelve feet long ; they 
will then have a support at both ends ; and in the middle 
they should be made of narrow but straight and well sea- 
soned oak stuff, and laid loose upon their supports, and at a 
distance of about an inch from each other. The tiles dry 
better on these than upon wide boards. In this way the 
shed will have shelving on each side of the central space 
in which the tiles are made ; each shelf inside the posts, 
will be a little more than three feet wide, which is suffi- 
cient for three tiles endwise in the green state ; there will 
be nine tier of shelves, one over the other. A shed of 
this size will dry about ten thousand tiles at a time. 

Through the center of the shed a railway track should 
be laid. This may be made of two-by-four scantling set 
endwise, and tied together by cross pieces, and sunk 
nearly to the level of the floor. Upon this a little four- 
wheeled car runs, carrying the clay from the pug mill to 
the tile machine, and afterward the tiles from the shelves 
to the kiln. 

A shed something like what is described above is needed 
where hand tile machines, similar in principle to Daines', 
are used. If it- be intended to use Penfield's tile machine, 
which works by horse power, and has another arrange- 
ment for drying, scarcely any shedding is absolutely re- 
quired. In this method, the tile machine being a fixture, 
drying carriages are constructed, and these are put on a 
track connecting the machine to the kiln, and are moved 
along as they are filled. 

The internal arrangement of the shed should be such 
that the tile machine may be placed as near the center as 
possible. In the east and west ends of the shed " racks," 
as represented in the following cut, should be placed, on 
Avhich to dry the tile. Tile should always be dried in the 



352 



LAND DRAINAGE. 




l-'iii. 47. — ISack 1-i'R Dr.viNU Tii.E. 

shade — they dry more uniformly there than in the sun ; 
beside, should inclement weather intervene, they are then 
protected. The rack is very cheaply and simply made ; 
b is an upright, made of scantling, say, 3-by-4 inches, on 
which are fastened, with 4 or 5-inch spikes, the bats a, a, 
a, a; the slats or dryers, c, c, on which the tile are placed, 
may be of lath one-by-one and half inches. The uprights 
(b) should be no more than 6 feet apart — in fact, 4 feet is 
a good distance — in order to prevent the slats from warp- 
ing, or " sagging,'' as the tile makers say. 

The cut is intended to represent a rack to dry 16-inch 
tile ; but it is best to make them wide enough, so that three 
tile may be laid on endwise. The vertical spaces between 
the slats c, c, or bats a, a, a, a, should vary with the size 
of the tile made — thus the distance from a to a should be 
greater for three than for 1^-inch tile. When the tile are 
molded by the machine they are carried away and placed 
upon the dryers, as represented at d, d. 

Or the drying racks may be conveniently made as fol- 



DRYING TILES. 353 

lows : Two upright posts of roofing latli should be fixed 
sufficiently far apart to permit one end of a drying board 
to go between them, and at the length of this board two 
more to receive the other end. When the tiles are cut 
oft", they should be closely laid upon drying boards, the 
length of which should, for convenience, be about four or 
five feet, and the width equal to the length of the tiles. 
When the board is full it should be placed in the rack, 
upon pieces of scantling or other supports, and upon each 
end should be placed a similar piece of scantling, half an 
inch or so thicker than the tile, and upon these the next 
drying board filled is to be placed — the other supporting 
scantlings at the ends and drying boards upon them until 
the rack has been filled to the desired hight. The number 
of racks and their distance apart must be determined by 
the size of the dry house and the necessary movements 
between them. 

Upon these racks the tiles remain to be dried, but they 
still require constant care and watching to effect drying 
properly. To keep the tiles straight, they should be 
placed close together, and if, in the process of drying, 
they become curved, the bow should be twined upward, so 
that they may assume their straight form again. The ad- 
mission of air should be carefully regulated to dry the tiles 
uniformly; otherwise, they are liable to crack. In point 
of fact, the tile should be dried by the winds — not by hot 
southern winds, but cool north or northwest ones. 

If the clay is well prepared, and proper attention paid 
to the pipes during the drying process, the remaining 
parts of the fabrication will go on well. The admission 
of air in proper quantity is always a matter of importance. 

The larger kinds of pipe, which are placed upright 
while drying, should be reversed frequently, until hard 
enough to be laid down without injurv, because the upper 
31 



Sb4: LAND DRAINAGE. 

end always dries the most rapidly. When the pipes be- 
come somewhat dry, they may be laid in piles of several 
pipes in hight, according to their dryness ; and, when dry 
enough to burn, five or six of even the largest size may 
be superimposed upon each other. 

Some manufacturers dry their pipes upon hurdles or 
frames made of laths, in order to favor the admission of 
air; but this mode has scarcely any advantage over the 
simple drying board, and is far more expensive, and the 
pipes are more liable to be bent by being placed upon such 
racks. 

Rolling and rimming the tiles is to be performed to se- 
cure a faultless product, and is done when they have lain 
long enough to be somewhat stiff, but still not hard enough 
to crack when handled and bent. This step in the pro- 
gress of fabrication is too much neglected in this country, 
but in England is considered indispensable. 

E-olling the pipes is thus performed : A round, smooth 
stick, one quarter or one third of an inch less in diameter 
than the clear capacity of the pipe, and long enough to 
reach through and afford a hand hold at each end, is passed 
through the opening, and the pipe gently rolled upon a 
smooth table two or three times to straighten it, and thus 
prevent any inequality which may have occurred during 
the progress of drying from becoming permanent. After 
rolling, the pipes are rimmed, by inserting into each end 
alternately and turning around the rimmer a wooden in- 
strument, which is constructed of a round, smooth stick, 
just large enough to fill the end of the pipe, around the 
end of the shaft of which, and between it and the handle, 
is a collar, or square offset. This instrument, properly 
used, gives an exactly square. end to the pipe, and insures 
their closely fitting together when laid down. The top 
or shaft of the instrument should be somewhat tapering, 



TILE BUKNING. 355 

SO as to favor its insertion and only exactly fill tlie open- 
ing at the shoulder or collar. This shape favors its inser- 
tion and prevents the clay from being pushed into ridges 
when it is inserted. 

The operations of rolling and rimming are very import- 
ant to secure good tiles, and the expense is so slight that 
it Avill be more than repaid in the better quality of the 
product. 

For convenience, a light table, about fifteen inches 
broad (where the tiles are twelve inches long), should be 
used. The tiles can be lifted off and on the drying board 
by means of the rolling pin, and the table moved forward 
as the work progresses, and in this manner the process 
may go on very rapidly. 

Tile burning. — This is performed when the tiles are per- 
fectly dry, and can only be done well by a person ac- 
quainted with the business. No extended description can 
supply a want of practical knoAvledge, but a word of ad- 
monition, in regard to important moments in the process, 
may be of great utility. One indispensable matter is a 
proper burning kiln. Almost any kind of lime or potters' 
kiln may be made use of, but an oven especially adapted 
will be found of great advantage. 

In establishing a tile yard, it is usual to make and burn 
a clamp of bricks, in the first instance ; then to use the 
scoving, the soft and other waste bricks for building the 
kiln. If the intention is to make from one to two hundred 
thousand in a season, a kiln 11 feet by 13 in the inside, 
and 10 feet high, will be a suitable size. A kiln of such 
dimensions will hold about 15,000 tiles, the number vary- 
ing, of course, according to their size, beside bricks enough 
to fill to the top of the arches. The kiln must be built at 
one end of the shed, and directly in a line with it, so that 
the doorway into the side of the kiln, through which the 



356 LAND DRAINAGE. 

tiles arc carried to be set, may be on a line witli tlie car 
track of the shed. Directly opposite this doorway there 
should be a similar opening on the other side of the kiln, 
through which the burnt tiles may be carried. The fire 
holes will be through the narrowest sides of the kiln, or 
those which correspond with the sides of the shed. For 
a kiln of the size named, there will be four fire holes, each 
end of which will be open. The walls of the kiln should 
not be less than two feet six inches in thickness at the 
bottom, and three feet is still better. They are carried 
up perpendicularly on the inside, but gradually becoming 
thinner toward the top, by drawing in on the outside. 
They are better built of tempered clay, mixed with a con- 
siderable proportion of sand, than of lime mortar. Some 
25,000 bricks will be required to build such a kiln as the 
one described. 

Tile kilns, of the following construction, will be found 
very appropriate for the purpose. There are two princi- 
pal forms of construction in vogue in Europe — one of 
which is the higli kiln, and the other the low kiln. The 
high kilns are commonly 20 to 24 feet long, 10 to 12 feet 
wide, and the arch 10 to 12 feet high, measured in the 
clear. The walls are made four courses of brick thick, 
and are supported by buttresses in the longitudinal walls. 
Between the buttresses, on each side, there are 8 furnace 
holes, 15 inches wide and about twice as high, and pro- 
vided with a grate and ash box. They permit the firing 
to be done by means of wood, coal or turf. The door, 
placed at one end, should be wide enough to admit of 
wheeling in the tiles, and must be walled up when the 
burning is begun. Inside, between each pair of furnaces^ 
there is a small flue, 3 to 4 inches square, which, passing 
up the wall and along the arch, terminates in low chim- 
neys formed conveniently of tile pipe of proper size. 



TILE BURNING, 357 

There are beside G or 8 rows of small smoke stacks, 4 to 
5 inches in clear diameter, and 2 feet high, Avhich pass 
through the arch, that may be opened or closed on the 
outside at pleasure, and by means of which the heat may 
be regulated according to requirement during the process 
of burning. Such a kiln resembles very much a common 
tile kiln. 40,000 or 50,000 pieces, of different dimensions, 
may be burnt in such a kiln, if space be economized, by 
placing the smaller pipes inside of the larger ones. The 
furnaces must be covered with an arch of masonry, else 
the pipes placed immediately upon the top of the furnace 
would be over-burnt. 

The loiv kiln resembles a common potter's oven, and is 
now greatly in vogue, as it is easily built, and yields a 
well burnt product. Such a kiln consists of a long arch, 
8 to 10 feet high, 14 to 16 feet long, and 10 to 12 feet 
wide in the clear. The walls and arch may be built very 
thin, if supported by iron arch bands — 6 or 8 inch walls 
being sufficient. But latterly the walls have been built 
thicker and supported by buttresses. At one end is placed 
the chimney, and at the other end the door for wheeling 
in the tiles. On each side of the door is built a furnace, 
of 18 to 20 inches breadth, and 10 to 15 inches hight, and 
a third furnace is fixed in the doorway when this is walled 
up. Immediately behind the doorway wall is placed the 
ash pit, 2| feet broad and 6 to 10 inches deep. The hearth 
of the oven lies a little higher than the opening of the ash 
pit, and behind this again there is a depression 9 inches 
wide and 6 deep, in which originate four flues, which, lead- 
ing through the walls, terminate in the chimney. The 
chimney is not placed, as in the potter's oven, upon the 
arch, but at the end, so that the fire may be forced to pass 
over all the pipes, which are thus uniformly burnt in all 
parts. The chimney is about 15 to 18 inches clear in 



358 LAND DRAINAGE. 

diameter. In the walls and gable ends are vents, which 
during burning arc Availed up, but arc opened v/hen this 
is finished, so as to favor cooling. 

Twenty to twenty-five thousand pipes of different sizes 
can be placed in such a kiln. When the tiles are wheeled 
in for arrangement, bricks are placed upright upon the 
hearth, and the pipes are set upon these perpendicularly, 
so that the fire may readily draw through the whole. 
When the kiln is filled, a sieve-like wall of a single course 
of brick, is built up to force the fire to spread equally 
through the entire oven, and at the same time to protect, 
in some measure, the first courses of tiles from the ex- 
cessive action of the fire. 

The following precautions must be observed in burn- 
ing : 

The tiles should not be placed in the oven before they 
are perfectly dry ; but in case it is necessary to do so, 
they must be dried there, by being subjected, very gradu- 
ally, to the heat of a slow fire, in order to dry them thor- 
oughly, before heating them very much, as tiles burnt 
rapidly, in a damp condition, are nearly always bent and 
full of cracks. 

The pipes are placed in the oven, perpendicularly upon 
the hearth and brick work which forms the furnace pas- 
sages. Small pipes are put into larger ones, but not so 
nearly of a size, as to hinder a free play of the fire be- 
tween them. Six inch pipe may be filled with three or 
four inch pipe, and these with inch pipe. This mode of 
placing is for the purpose of saving space. The upper 
tier of pipes may be placed horizontally, but the lower 
ones could not sustain the superincumbent pressure were 
they so placed. 

It is very important to be provided with good fuel, and 
to keep the heat at an even temperature throughout the 



TILE BUKNING. * 359 

process. If tlie draught of the Avind cause the heat to 
be excessive upon one side, this can be remedied in the 
high oven, by opening or closing the smoke stacks ; and 
in the loiv oven, by varying the intensity of the fire upon 
one or the other side, as the case may require. 

When the burning is completed, precaution is necessary 
to prevent too rapid cooling, otherwise the tiles will be 
found much cracked. It often happens that tiles are 
found imperfectly baked, and are denominated " pale " or 
" soft." These can not be used, as they crumble to 
pieces in the wet, and should be reburnt with the next 
kiln full. If at any particular part of the kiln the tiles 
are commonly imperfectly burned, the " soft" tiles of one 
burning may be placed in that part for the next burning, 
and they will thus become sufficiently baked. 

Fuel. — In many localities coal is cheaper than wood, 
and fortunately it answers the purpose equally as well. 
Where wood is employed, the soft kinds are greatly pre- 
ferred to the hard. Soft maple, basswood, whitewood and 
chestnut, are the best, making a steadier heat and more 
flame. For kiln use, wood must be thoroughly seasoned, 
split tolerably fine, of the length of the holes or shorter. 
A cord of good wood should burn about three thousand 
tiles. 

Burning. — When holes are made on both sides of the 
kiln, as recommended, the burning is effected on one side 
at a time. By this method, more time is probably con- 
sumed, though not more wood, and there is less danger 
of an unequal or insufiicient burn. In burning tiles, it 
should be borne in mind that the soft burnt are worthless, 
and only those that are thoroughly hard, and will ring 
when struck, are of any value. It requires from two 
days and a night, to four days and nights, to burn a kiln 
of tiles, the difference depending on the kind of fuel, the 



360 * LAND DRAINAGE, 

character of the clay, and the method pursued — they 
should be allowed from 48 to 60 hours to cool. 

We translate the following from Barrell's work on 
drainage : 

" Burning. — The operation of burning the pipes comprises three 
divisions : 1. Placing the tiles into the oven. 2. Conducting off the 
fire. 3. Cooling and removing from the oven. 

" The burning of pipes is of great importance, for it affects both 
the quality and the price of the manufixctured article. Therefore, 
the more perfect is the oven, or kiln, the better and cheaper will be 
the pipe. We can not enter into any description of the numerous 
improvements on the subject which have transpired, a whole book 
would not suffice ; but we will give general outlines in the expres- 
sions of Mr. Brongniart, the most competent writer on the ' Ceramic 
Art:' 

" ' An oven contains four principal parts, viz : The fire phice, the 
mouth, the laboratory and the chimney; in the fire place is thrown 
the fuel, whatever it may be ; the mouth is an opening through which 
the air is introduced which is to sustain combustion ; the laboratory 
is the place where the articles to be burned are placed ; the chim- 
ney is a channel though which the gases escape after having pro- 
duced their effect. 

" ' Some ovens have no special chimney — it is a part of the labo- 
ratory — into these the flame or gas is directed from the fire place 
through holes or openings named ' carnemix ;' when the flame is not 
admitted into the laboratory, and goes directly into the chimney, 
the heat is received by radiation.' 

" 'We will suppose an ordinary potter's kiln is employed, and pro- 
ceed to the operation of placing the pipes into the laboratory : A 
layer of common brick is to be disposed in a vertical position, at a 
small distance from each other, on the floor of the oven ; upon these, 
the pipes of the largest diameter are to be placed, one upon the other, 
so as to form layers up to the top ; some manufacturers place the 
pipes upright in the same position as they were arranged to dry; this 
system is evidently favorable, because it results therefrom that each 
series of pipes placed on fends form as many chimneys, which favor 
the draft, and distribute more c(juaily the heat. The fire is next 
kindled, and kept at first very slow ; after a few daj^s heat may grad- 
ually be inci'eased up to the highest possible degree; during that 



TILE BURNING. 361 

time the utmost care and constant attention are necessary to avoid 
accidents. 

" ' When the burning is not complete, or otherwise defective, the 
pipes remain tender, earthy, Avith a dull color, either white or red ; 
they are not sonorous, and break or shell ofl" under the influence of 
the air; they facilitate the generation of saltpeter, crumble to pieces, 
are destroyed in a very short period or time, and finally ruin the 
drains. 

" ' Should, on the contrary, the fire be itntimehj^ or excessive, the ma- 
terial will melt in part, the pipes become dark brown or black, out of 
shape, and stick to each other in cooling. From this may be seen 
how important it is to secure the right degree of heat, which pro- 
duces tile between a dark and a very bright red ; this may be easily 
watched, by keeping, within reach show pieces, which may be ex- 
tracted through convenient holes ; it is advisable not to hurry the 
operation of burning. When the fire has been brought to the proper 
degree of intensity, it must be gradually diminished, and suppressed 
altog'ether ; then the mouth and chimney of the oven are to be closed 
so as to exclude carefully the cold air; all must be left in this state, 
during several days, to permit the pipes gradually to cool dow^n, 
otherwise they would crack or burst to pieces. 

" 'A skillful burner will, at the proper time, remove the pipes from 
the oven, with hardly any breakage, or at most from two to five per 
cent.; whereas the loss may be considerable from want of skill or 
care.' " 

The price of tile at tileries, throughout Ohio, is yet 
entirely too great to induce farmers, generally, to adopt 
tile draining, where they are obliged to rely upon the 
tileries for supplies. There is no good reason — other 
than the fact that tile making is yet a new business, and 
not thoroughly understood — why tile should cost any more 
than common brick. The amount of material used in a 
single brick will make from two to four or five tile, ac- 
cording to size ; while the amount of heat required to 
burn one brick will burn more tile than can be made from 
the material in the brick. True, a little more care is 
necessary in arranging the tile in the kiln ; a much smaller 
32 



362 LAND DRAINAGE. 

quantity can be burned at a time than of brick, and every 
defective or warped tile is worthless ; these, of course, are 
drawbacks, but in course of time they will in a very great 
degree be obviated. Good tile can be obtained at Cleve- 
land, Columbus, Cincinnati, Woodstock, Painesville, Spring- 
field, Claridon, etc., in Ohio, at reasonable rates. 



CHAPTER VI. 



HOW WATER ENTERS THE PIPES. 

This question is asked by all persons who, for the first 
time, direct their attention to the subject of drainage, 
and the solution of the problem involved in the inquiry, 
is rather a subject of scientific interest than a matter of 
practical moment ; for the water does find ingress, as 
experiment proves. But nevertheless, there are some 
practical bearings in the question which demand investi- 
gation. 

In the ordinary arrangement of strata of earth, there is 
a very permeable layer or soil and subsoil, and below, a 
less permeable stratum or " hard-pan." The water of 
rains descends to this stratum, and is there retained for 
a longer time than in the more permeable soils above ; and 
it is a consequence of this retention, that the upper strata 
become submerged with water. 

When drains are laid much above the level of this re- 
tentive stratum, they do not begin to carry ofi" the sur- 
face water until this has completely saturated the whole 
depth of soil from the " hard-pan " up to the level of the 
drains, which thus obtains the water which enters it from 
below. It was at one time supposed to be disadvantage- 
ous to the object intended, if the surface water made its 
way immediately downward into the drains, as it was 
supposed to be not sufiiciently filtered, and much of the 
soil enriching contents would be carried away into the 
drain, when it should have remained in the soil. To 
obviate the immediate descent of the water into the drain, 

(363; 



364 LAND DRAINAGE, 

it was recommended to cover the newly-laid pipe with a 
layer of sand, or other porous material, two or three inches, 
and then overlay it with a covering of stiff clay, which 
would cause the more even and natural descent of the 
surface Avater to the impermeable stratum below, and its 
subsequent ascent to the drain level, into the bottom of 
which it finds entrance. But recent experiments have 
shown the fallacy of this doctrine. We have shown, in 
the experiments of Liebig and others, that the soil at once 
absorbs all the nutritious properties borne down by the 
rains. The permeable strata will not yield their moisture 
to the drain until the point of saturation has been reached 
below. 

The manner in which the water finds admission into the 
drain pipe, when it has once found its way to it, is very 
simple and easy of explanation. If the whole drain were 
one continued, unbroken pipe, submerged into a supersat- 
urated soil, a portion of water would find its way by 
means of what may be termed soakage, through the some- 
what porous walls of the pipes, as water makes its way 
slowly through bricks. This soaking or sweating process 
would go on more readily through soft, poorly burned 
pipes ; but in tiles very thoroughly burned, it would go 
on very slowly ; so slowly as to defeat the purpose for 
which such tiles are laid down. The proportion of water, 
however, which enters the jointed pipes (the only ones 
used) by soakage, is so inconsiderable, that we must look 
for some other mode of entrance, in answer to the ques- 
tion, " How does it get in ?" 

No jointed pipe can be made and laid down, in which 
the joints will fit sufliciently close to prevent the free 
access of water to the empty space within the tube. The 
facility for entrance, by this means, afforded by a pipe of 
any size, under four inches, 200 feet long, made of 13 



HOAV WATER ENTERS THE PIPES, 365 

inch sections, will exceed, by far, the capacity of the 
same pipe to discharge the stream which might thus find 
entrance. The water, then, enters at the joints, which 
can not be made close enough to prevent its ingress, and, 
when properly laid down, the water entering the drain 
has its course from below upward. 

Kielman appears to doubt, that sufficient space would 
occur between the joints of twelve or thirteen inch pipe 
to carry ofi" the water which would collect. But being 
satisfied that the joints were the only place at which water 
could enter, he manufactured tiles having a length of 
nine inches only, in order to facilitate the admission of 
water. This we consider very bad policy; because it 
makes not only more joints than are necessary, but be- 
cause short joints are more subject to disturbances than 
long ones. In fact, sixteen or eighteen inch tiles afi'ord 
sufficient joint apertures for ail the water they can convey 
away. There have been, many calculations with regard 
to the amount of space between the joints of pipes ; and 
although we have quoted Messrs. Shedd and Edson, at 
page 282, as being correct in the main, we yet prefer, as 
a matter of mathematical precision, those made by Vin- 
cent. He says, in effect, that water requires no other 
means of entering the pipes than the spaces at the joints. 
The inner circumference of a one inch pipe, amounts to 
about three inches. If, then, the width between the 
joints is assumed to be one eighth of aline, or one ninety- 
sixth part of an inch, which, in all probability, is the least 
possible space which is likely to occur, under ordinary 
circumstances, it produces an entrance space equivalent to 
one thirty-second of a square inch. The section or open- 
ing of a one inch pipe would then have a capacity of 
nearly three fourths of a square inch. Then, twenty-four 
or twenty-five joints, each having an entrance capacity at 



366 LAND DRAINAGE. 

the joints of one ninety-sixth of an inch, will have an 
aggregate joint entrance capacity equivalent to the cali- 
ber of the pipe itself. In less than two rods, v/e have 
upward of twenty-five joints, therefore the minimum ca- 
pacity of admission at the joints more than equals the 
caliber of the pipe every two rods. 

But as it is not at all likely that drainage water will fill 
the pipes every two rods, the joints might even be made 
closer than one ninety-sixth of an inch, and yet admit all 
the water that is likely to find its way into the drain. On 
the other hand, there are scarcely any tiles manufactured 
whose joints will fit closer than one half a line, or the one 
twenty-fourth of an inch ; therefore the water would find 
its way into the pipes in sufficient quantities, even if the 
tiles were two feet, instead of one foot long. 



CHAPTER VII. 



DURABILITY OF TILE. 

This question has not been tested fully in this, and 
perhaps in no other, country. The length of time since 
the first pipe tiles have been laid down here, has not been 
long enough to determine this question. All the infor- 
mation that can be gathered from direct experiment, and 
analogical reasoning, goes to hhow that drains of properly 
burned tiles, may be considered '^ permanent " improve- 
ments. 

A few references to known cases of durability of tiles, 
and other objects of similar constitution, may aid in ar- 
riving at a proper estimate of the indestructibility of tile 
drains. 

In Wigtonshire, England, the celebrated Marshal, Earl 
of Stair, had constructed some drains of brick, laid upon 
the clay subsoil, beneath the vegetable mold, one hundred 
years ago, which, when examined after the lapse of that 
time, were found to be uninjured, both as to materials 
and permeability. They were laid, in one instance, by 
setting two courses of bricks lengthwise, about four inches 
apart, and covering the space inclosed by laying other 
bricks endwise across. In another case, the drain was 
made by laying down bricks side by side, as a foundation, 
upon the edges of which other brick were set up side- 
ways, and the whole covered with flat stones. In both 
cases the work was next inclosed with a packing of 
broken bricks, or " bats," and then earth superimposed. 

In France, there are tile and brick drains laid down in 
the early part of the seventeenth century, still in good 

(367) 



368 LAND DRAINAGE. 

repair, and fit for the purpose intended, whicli proves 
sufficient durability to warrant the construction of 
drains (if properly performed), with the reasonable ex- 
pectation that they will outlast the generation of those 
who perform the work. There are, indeed, in England, 
certain legal enactments and regulations made to promote 
and favor the construction of drains, which contemplate 
fifty years as the minimum period of durability, which 
may be assigned to this species of improvement, if prop- 
erly made. 

The almost indestructible nature of the materials, when 
properly protected, may be inferred from the fact, that 
at Ninevah and Babylon, bricks have "been exhumed after 
having lain in the earth for more than thirty centuries, in 
a state of perfect preservation. In Italy and Greece, 
specimens of ancient pottery are found, the age of which 
is often not less than two thousand years. Even in Ohio 
the antiquary can point to the remains of a very inferior 
kind of earthemvare, of an age coeval with the mound- 
builders, the cycle of whose life and labors is lost in the 
utter oblivion of forgetfulness, while their fragile potters- 
ware remains to tell us that " art is long, though life is 
short," and insure the duration of the work of our hands, 
until our name, and even nation, may pass away and be 
forgotten. 

In the Great Basin of Utah Territory, may be found 
the volcano-burnt clays of a period so remote in the 
world's geologic history, that no number of years can 
satisfactorily designate the durability which this clay, like 
that of our tiles in composition, has already shown; and 
no guess as to when the common causes of its destruc- 
tion will have disintegrated it again, can assign the limit 
of its future permanence. 

The useful durability of our tile drains, depends upon 



DURABILITY OF TILE. 369 

the following circumstances : 1. A properly constituted 
clay, suitable for making a "hard tile," that is, a semi- 
vitrified product. 2. The perfect burning of this into 
properly shaped hard pipes. 3. The laying of these so 
deeply in the earth, as to protect them from the frost, a 
most powerfully disturbing and destructive agent. 4. An 
observance of the proper rules of construction, so as to 
avoid curves, up and down, to such an extent as to favor 
the deposition of sand and rubbish, which may find their 
way into the tiles, through the crevices of the joints. 
Sand will be arrested at any depressed point in the course 
of a drain, and clog the conduit so as to prevent the flow 
of the water. And, last, the protection of the entrance 
and exit extremities of the pipes, from the admission of 
small animals, reptiles, and the like, or the treading of 
cattle. This object can best be attained by the use of 
tile plates, perforated with fine holes at each end, and in- 
closing the exit with a fence, or walling it up to prevent 
the cattle, attracted by the water flowing out, from tread- 
ing the tiles to pieces. (See page 382.) 

In regard to the kind of pipes which are most durable, 
it may be remarked that " pale," or " soft " tiles are 
readily softened and broken by the action of the water, 
while tile may be made perfectly indestructible, if sufl5- 
ciently burned, by any means save violence, frost, or 
powerful chemical re-agents, against all of which means 
of destruction a proper mode of deposit Avill entirely pro- 
tect it ; and a drain thus constructed, can have no limit 
assigned to its useful durability. In common phrase, it 
will " last forever." 



CHAPTER VIII. 



LAYING OUT DRAINS. 

In laying out drains, the first thing to be determined is 
the amount of fall. Therefore, the lowest spot on the 
field or fields to be drained must be selected as the start- 
ing point. The amount of fall which can be obtained at 
the lowest point necessarily determines the depth of the 
drains. After having determined the amount of fall, the 
next thing to be determined is, whence comes the water? 
Should it be ascertained that the water comes from an un- 
derground spring, then a drain on the Elkington plan may 
be advisable. If the water appears in concavity, on the 
side of a hill, it will, perhaps, be well to examine the soil 
immediately underneath, and, if an impervious bed under- 
lies, which is in turn succeeded by a porous bed, it may 
be bored through at short distances, drawing the water 
into the lower and pervious stratum. Should the water 
make its appearance at the bottom of the hill, flowing over 
an impervious stratum, a drain might be dug parallel with 
the base of the hill, which will remove the water coming 
from above, and the spring will be cut off. Again, from 
the bottom of this drain auger holes might be bored through 
the impervious bed into the next below, should it be found 
pervious. (See illustration, Fig. 48.) 

In this case the purpose is merely to collect and carry 
ofi" springs that come to the surface — a knowledge of the 
character and arrangement of the earth a few feet below 
the surface, therefore, is very desirable. Where the water 
washes its way to the surface, in a layer of sand or gravel, 
lying upon a layer of clay or rock, as is usually the case, 
C370) 



LAYING OUT DRAINS. 



371 



the work is very simple, A ditch or drain is made up to 
the foot of the hill or ridge, from some creek or other 
place, where sufficient outfall can be 
obtained; it is then carried along the 
foot of the hill or ridge, usually a 
little above where the water makes 
its appearance. The drain must be 
low enough at the mouth to allow of 
cutting entirely through the layer of 
sand or gravel that carries the water, 
or much will escape under the drain. 
It is of little use to run drains end- 
wise into banks, for the purpose of 
drainage, though it is sometimes done 
successfully when the object is only 
to obtain a supply of stock water. 

In the drainage of swamps, or small 
basin-like depressions, it is customary 
to cut a main drain through the cen- 
ter, at a depth sufficient effectually 
to drain the lowest point. In the 
direction, for example, from 4 to the 
top of the hill, 1. Then other drains, 
as at 6, 6, 6, 7, which empty into the first from both sides, 
commencing as near 'as may be to the edge of the swamp 





to catch the water in its descent from the higher lands. 
Without these side drains, or a drain encircling such de- 



872 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



pressions to a greater or lesser extent, they frequently 
continue wet and cold, notwithstanding the existence of a 
good central drain or ditch. 



t^d 



^0^!k 



X<.jK< 



f 



Where there is a basin- 
shaped field, as in the an- 
nexed cut (Fig. 50), in which 
1 represents a clay soil, 2 
a bed of hard-pan, 3, 4 and 
5 different layers of rock 
and shales, 6 gravel, drains 
may be cut centering at 7, 
like those at G, G, G, G, in 
Fig. 51 (next page), at H, 
cut through the strata into 
a pit or Avell ; and, if neces- 
sary, minor drains may be 
cut leading into those fig- 
ured. 

In thorough draining, 
sufiicient fall having been 
obtained from the lowest 
point of the land to be 
drained, that becomes the 
proper starting point. If 
the field has a regular de- 
scent toward one of its sides, 
along that side the main 
drain is carried, and all the 
minor drains start from and 
run parallel one to another. If the lowest part of the 
land to be thoroughly drained be not along one of its 
sides, the main drain is carried along the lowest place, 
whether straight or otherwise, and the minor drains start 
from it on both sides. If the direction of the minor drains 




LAYING OUT DRAINS. 



373 



be at right angles to the main drain, it is better to curve 
the end of the minor drain for a few feet, where it enters 
the main, so that its current may not be across that of the 
main drain, but partly in the same direction. 

The fewer main drains and general outlets to a field, 
the better. In the drainage of hillsides, it has been a 
question whether the parallel drains should be carried 
down the line of greatest descent, or obliquely to it; but 
longer experience has settled the question, where tiles are 




used, in favor of the line of greatest descent, or, in other 
words, running the minor drains straight down the slope. 
One should think that a question apparently so self- 
evident would require no argument. But we find, in the 
works of the various writers on this subject, that a great 
diversity of opinion exists. One party insists that if a 
drain be cut across the foot of the hill, as at 1, in Fig. 52, 
it will completely drain not only the stratum 3, but 
also that indicated by 2, and all above it ; and, therefore, 
object to making drains in the direction of the greatest 
descent. Another party would make a drain to carry off 



374 LAND DRAINAGE. 

the water from each stratum which would crop out from 
the hillside. But, in order to drain land effectuall}'-, it is 
essentially necessary that Ave have a correct idea of the 







sources from which the water is derived that is to be car- 
ried off; whether the water is directly from the clouds, or 
is derived from fields enjoying a greater elevation, and 
sloping toward it, so that the water comes down, like on a 
roof, from the other fields; or whether it comes up in 
springs, which find vent in particular spots, as indicated 
at 7, Fig. 49. If the water is not derived from adjoining 
fields but from the clouds direct, a different mode of drain- 
ing is required than would be if the Avater came from 
higher fields. When lands are situated midway on an un- 
drained slope, from which the water spreads over the sur- 
face of the land, such a system must be adopted as will 
not only drain the field in question, but also to cut off the 
supply of water from the higher fields. 

One thing must be borne in mind, that Avater runs down 
hill, and does not spread so as to run laterally. From the 
fact that Avater always seeks the lowest level by force of 
gravitation, and drains are simply loiver levels to conduct 
the surplus water aAA'ay, in order to decide correctly Avhat 
direction a drain should have, it is not only necessary to 
have a correct idea of the sources of water, and the super- 
position of strata, but a definite idea as to the special 
ofiice the drain is to perform so as to carry off the surplus 
water and drain the land. 



LAYING OUT DRAINS. 375 

As before stated, drains should be dug up and down the 
slope, as from 1 to 2, Fig. 52. Suppose a man has a field 
lying on a slope, which he wishes to drain. If he lay out 
his drains thirty feet apart, and cut them up and down the 
line of greatest descent, it is very evident that the drains 
will then. intersect all the strata, and bear away the water 
from all of them. But, if he lay out his drains the same 
distance apart across the line of greatest descent, the lower 
drain will receive the water from the thirty feet next above 
it; the next drain from the thirty feet next above that, 
and so on ; thus compelling the water to traverse or per- 
colate through thirty feet of soil before reaching a drain. 
But in the other case, the water will traverse a distance 
of fifteen feet only to find a conduit. The line of the 
greatest fall is the only line in which the drain is rela- 
tively lower than the land on either side of it. The water 
must be disposed of which rests upon the impervious strata, 
whether it has found its way there from fields or strata 
above, or whether it is water from the clouds, and has re- 
cently found its way there. But, in order to drain a field 
lying on a slope, with higher lands above it, it is, perhaps, 
as well to cut the upper drain across the line of greatest 
descent, and lead it, as a sub-main, down the line of great- 
est descent, at the side or center of the field, to the out- 
let. This answers the purpose, as these drains signifi- 
cantly have been termed, of mere catch-waters. 

Now, looking at the operation of drains across the 
slope, and supposing that each drain is draining the 
breadth next above it, we will suppose the drain to be 
running full of water. AVhat is there to prevent the 
water from passing out of that drain in its progress, at 
every point of the tiles, and so saturating the breadth 
below it? Drain pipes aiford the same facility for water 
to soak out at the lower side, as to enter on the upper. 



376 LAND DRAINAGE. 

and there is the same law of gravitation to operate in 
each case. Mr. Denton gives instances in which he has 
observed, where drains were carried across the slope, in 
Warwickshire, lines of moisture at a regular distance be- 
low the drains. He could ascertain, he says, the depth 
of the drain itself, by taking the difference of hight be- 
ween the line of the drain at the surface, and that of the 
line of moisture beneath it. ^ He says again : 

" I recently had an opportunity, in Scotland, of gauging the quan- 
tity of water traveling along an important drain carried obliquely 
across the fall, when I ascertained with certainty, that, although 
the land through which it passed was comparatively full of water, 
the drain actually lost more than it gained in a passage of several 
chains through it." 

So far as authority goes, there seems, with the excep- 
tion of some advocates of the Keythorpe system, of which 
an account has been given, to be very little difference of 
opinion. Mr. Denton says : 

"With respect to the direction of drains, I believe very little dif- 
ference of opinion exists. All the most successful drainers concur 
in the line of the steepest descent, as essential to effective and eco- 
nomical drainage. Certain exceptions are recognized in the west 
of England; but I believe it will be found, as practice exends in 
that quarter, that the exceptions have been allowed in error." 

In another place, he says : 

" The very general concurrence in the adoption of the line of 
greatest descent, as the proper course for the minor drains in soils 
free from rock, would almost lead me to declare this as an incontro- 
vertible principle." 

We will suppose A, B, Fig. 53, to represent a portion 
of the higher field above. Then the catch-water or 
drain across the line of greatest descent will be repre- 
sented by A, H, E, H, B ; and when the nature of the 

1 French on Drniiiri^e. 



LAYING OUT DRAINS. 



377 



A 



.-.^^m^B 














ground will admit, or should there be a depression toward 
the center of the field, the catch-water may be led from 
E to J, as a sub-main, being some distance below J, the 
main drain. The minor drains then should run parallel, 
or nearly so, to E, J. 

Where the distance from E to J is considerable, it is al- 
Avays advisable to run the minor drains F, F, F, etc., into sub- 
mains, G, G, G, G. In draining a piece of land, situated 
like that represented in Fig. 52, which would involve the 
cutting of ditches to the depth of eight or ten feet be- 
tween 1 and 2, so as to have the drains of a proper depth at 
3, it will be found advisable to lead the minor drains into a 
sub-main from 4 to 3, and then commence a new series of 
drains between 2 and 1, and lead them into another sub- 
main at 1. 

Some good drainers advise, that when works stop on a 
38 



378 LAND DRAINAGE. 

slope, a drain called a header should connect the tops of 
the minor drains, thus preventing the water lying between 
the upper sub-main, A, E, B, of Fig. 53, and the minor 
drains F, F, F, F, etc., from passing down into the ground 
between the minor drains, and also relieving the minor 
drains from the pressure of the water above them, and by 
which they will the more easily become clogged than when 
protected. However, when the sub-main is dug above the 
minor drains, as in the figure, the necessity of headers is 
very slight, except when the quantity and pressure of 
water is sufficient to cause it to flow over the sub-main. 

Even the sub-main will not drain the slope above it en- 
tirely. Capillary attraction, and the resistance offered to 
the descent of the Avater will prevent the sub-main from 
bringing about a complete drainage. The cuttings of our 
railways and high banks of rivers show that no depth of 
ditch can remove the moisture from a very considerable 
distance. This part of the subject has been more fully 
discussed in the Chapter on Distance of Drains. 

The sub-main draining the highest portion of the slope 
should be independent of all minor drains and branches, 
for being directly in contact with the head of water from 
'above, it will necessarily carry down more mud and silt, 
and have a tendency, if allowed, to choke up the milior 
drains. 

It is sometimes found advantageous to construct a tank, 
sink, or silt-basin, in both surface and covered drains. 
This is more especially the case Avhere an open enters into 
a covered drain. From this sink the water flows off" com- 
paratively clear. This arrangement will not be found to 
answer its purpose, when the amount of water flowing 
through the drains is very great, for then the motion of 
the stream passing through the tank will prevent the mud 
from depositing. It will also be necessary to have the 



LAYING OUT DKAINS. 379 

tank frequently cleaned from its deposit, for when filled 
with mud it is only an obstruction. 

We have now described the proper method of cutting 
off the supply of water from an underground spring, as 
well as draining the underground water from an adjoin- 
ing slope, and it yet remains to say a few words upon 
conveying away the amount discharged by the clouds. 
This is a subject upon which much has been written, and 
is even yet an exceedingly controverted point. It is, in 
fact, the egg of Columbus for drainers, as it involves not 
only a calculation of the distance between drains, the 
depth of drains, fall, and size of tile, but also evapora- 
tion and filtration. All of these points have been dis- 
cussed in the preceding pages. We may assume that the 
meteorological precipitations for Ohio, will average 43 
inches per annum (see page 77). The precipitations then 
will be 10"84 inches during the spring months; 13-40 
during the summer ; 9'60 during autumn, and 9'66 during 
winter. Assuming, then, in the absence of positive ex- 
periments, that evaporation is the same, pro rata, as in 
Continental European countries, it will amount to 15 
inches per annum in Ohio, leaving 28 inches to be fil- 
trated, and to flow oflf the surface. Of this, about one 
half, or 14 inches, finds its way into the soil, and the re- 
mainder into brooks, creeks, etc. Now, if these assump- 
tions are correct, then underdrained soils inaugurate a 
vast change in these proportions ; because where obser- 
vations have been correctly registered, it was found that 
eleven twentieths of the summer precipitations were dis- 
charged by the drains, and often more than three fifths 
of the autumn and spring precipitations, while the dis- 
charges from the drains averaged more than three fourths 
of the winter precipitations. Hence, the assumption, 
that one third of the precipitations are absorbed by filtra- 



380 LAND DRAINAGE. 

tion, is no criterion for the drainer. He must assume that 
at least one half of the meteorological precipitations are 
to be carried off by the drains. Now, the summer and 
autumn precipitations must not be taken as a basis, upon 
which to predicate either the distance between the drains 
or the capacity of the tiles, because the soil is then in a 
condition to dispose of the precipitation without any ob- 
struction. But the winter and spring precipitations will 
constitute a more reliable basis. Freezing during the 
Avinter months, arrests the operation of the drains, and 
when the genial weather in spring time sets in, the water 
of the two seasons have both to be drained at once. Now, 
if we take the amount of the precipitation of the three 
winter months, and add to it that of two spring months, 
this will give us the largest mass of water to be drained 
in the shortest period of time, so as to relieve the grow- 
ing crops from sustaining any injury. The period in 
which this water should be drained away, should never 
exceed fourteen days. 

Having given tables in the preceding pages, of fall, 
width between drains, and capacity of tiles, each one 
may make his own calculations for the piece of ground 
intended to be drained. 



CHAPTER IX. 



MAIN DRAINS. 

The main drain should be located on the lowest por- 
tion of the farm. It should be an open ditch, at least 
four feet deep, but when circumstances will permit, six 
feet. The side should have a slope of a foot and a half 
to each foot of depth. If then the drain be four feet 
deep, and eighteen inches wide at the bottom, the width 
at the top will be thirteen and a half feet. The ground 
excavated, if thrown up on the sides, will form a capital 
fence. In fact, the ha-ha fences of England are built in 
this manner, for the reason that they occupy less space, 
and are equally as preventive as hedges are against the 
irruptions of unruly cattle. The main should invariably 
be made before the minor drains, for very obvious rea- 
sons, prominent among which is the determination of the 
amount of fall and depth of the minor drains. The 
main drain should invariably be a foot or eighteen inches 
lower than the outlet of the minor drains, if they dis- 
charge immediately into the main drain ; but where sub- 
main drains are employed, the main should be at least 
eight inches below the outlets of the sub-mains, while the 
sub-mains should be at least 6 inches lower than the minor 
drains. Of course where these proportions are not prac- 
ticable, less fall between the minor drains and sub-mains, 
and between the sub-mains and mains, must be admissible. 
But where these proportions can be attained, greater se- 
curity will be given to the drains, against disturbances by 
frogs, lizards, or other amphibious animals. Where a 
sub-main or minor drains empty into the main drain, the 
(381) 



382 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



■T X^>t S^-sv^^js? £: % 



exit pipe should be secured by a system of masonry, simi- 
^.i^«^s^«'«*«^?^^S*>'?a^.^4.<-<-*-uj^^ lar to that represented 
■^^^^^55^S^^>^^&?V^' in Fig. 54. This effec- 
:v\^VuV;.'i'- tually prevents the en- 
trance of frogs, craw- 
fish and other " var- 
mints." 

We have mentioned 

minor drains emptying 

into the main drain, or 

separate outlet for each 

re- 




open ditch, 
minor drain. 



thus making a 
We do not wish to be understood as 
commending this method, by any means, because these 
outlets are not only liable to be frozen up in winter 
time, but are exposed to cattle and to mischievous boys, 
and to become obstructed by deposits which are discharged 
by the drains themselves. A much better plan is to have 
the minor drains empty into a sub-main, as g g, emptying 
into J, in the lower portion of Fig. 53. The smaller the 
number of outlets, in any system of draining, the better. 

Some may object to our plan of one outlet, on the 
ground that, should any obstruction occur in the minor 
drains, it will be more difficult of inspection. This is true 
in a certain sense ; but we think that surface indications 
will show when and where any serious obstruction takes 
place, with as much certainty as the open end of the drain. 
And surely, the additional security of having a few open- 
ings, well protected, is a much greater advantage than a 
drain left open for the purpose of investigation. How- 
ever, to obviate any diSiculty which might arise from 
either of the above methods, some good drainers recom- 
mend that "peep-holes" should be placed at regular dis- 
tances, by which, should any derangement occur, its 
locality and e:jtent could be easily determined. The con- 



MAIN DRAINS. 



383 



struction of these " peep-holes " may be varied to suit 
the taste or means of the proprietor. A very easy method 
of making them will be to sink a stout barrel or hogshead 
over the drain. This, however, will be but a temporary 
concern. Another form, more in place with the whole 
system, may be constructed after the annexed cut, Fig. 
55, either of earthenware or cast iron. It should be well 



^-.\s)M„^um;t^^^.l.^-<A.lK^^■rf-M/-^■<i^am 




protected at the surface of the ground, against cattle, etc., 
by a strong cover, as represented. This arrangement will 
furnish ample means for investigating drains, convincing 
the incredulous, and also, of making observations on the 
woi'king of the system in different portions of the work. 

We have before spoken of sinks or silt-basins. These 
should not be confounded with "peep-holes." The ac- 



384 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



companying cut gives a very good idea of their construc- 
tion. They should be built of solid masonry, large enough 
to admit of being cleaned out without inconvenience. A 
relief-pipe, as shown in the figure, will not always be ne- 



».l.y„.«l^v...,Mf<,«lWIMHL«,SV,. 




cessary, and may give rise to some inconvenience. The 
chain, which is attached to the flap covering the incoming 

drain, is operated from above. 
The object of this flap or valve 
is to prevent the water from 
flowing through the drain for 
any desirable length of time. 
The pent-up water, when re- 
leased, rushes down with force, 
sufficient to carry down the sand 
Fig. 57. and othcr impediments from the 

tiles above, also eff'ecting a partial cleansing of the basin 




MAIN DRAINS. 



385 



itself. The lid, Fig. 57, should be made of cast iron, and 
firmly fixed, to prevent displacement and accidents. 




Large Outlet. — N^o portion of the whole drain requires 
to be more substantially constructed than the large outlet; 
and none is more likely to be neglected. The drains we 
expect to last a lifetime, and certainly the outlet, which 
is the foundation and abutment of the whole, should be 
built with the same expectation. We have before spoken 
of the outlets of the minor drains, where they are emp- 
tied into the open or main ditch. We have now to speak 
of a preferable plan, namely, where the minor drains are 
united, forming a sub-main, and of the outlet which this 
sub-main should have. On this subject Mr. Denton says : 

"Too many outlets are objectionable, on account oF the labor of 
their maintenance; too few are objectionable, because they can only 
exist where there are mains of excessive length. A limit of twenty 
acres to an outlet, resulting in an average of, perhaps, fourteen 



386 LAND DRAINAOE, 

acres, will appear, by the practices of the best drainers, to be about 
the proper thing. If a shilling an acre is reserved for fixing the 
outlets, which should be iron pipes, ivith swing gratings, in masonry, 
very substantial work may be done." 

We present, in Fig. 58, preceding page, a section of 
such outlet as has been found to answer its purpose effec- 
tually. It is composed of solid masonry, strongly braced. 
The exit pipe is of cast iron, projecting a few inches from 
the work. The exit should be some inches, or even a 
foot and a half, if that distance can be had, from the bot- 
tom of the main drain, both that the water may iiow off 
readily, and that it may be protected from any backwaters 
ascending the main drain from the stream or pond in 
which it flows. It would be still better, if a fall could be 
given to the main drain before discharging its Avater into the 
creek or pond, thus preventing any backwater whatever. 



CHAPTER X. 



DRAINING TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 



The instruments used in the construction of drains are 
simple and few in number. They consist, mainly, of 
shovels, such as are used for ordinary purposes, spades, 
scoops, and picks. In addition to these, a pipe-layer will 
be necessary, for narrow drains, and a drain gauge and 
level are very convenient, if not necessary. 

Some of these tools are not made in this country, at 
present; they must either be imported, or some substi- 
tute obtained of an ingenious blacksmith. 



(SS^ 




Fio. 59 



Fig. go. 



Fio. 62. 



Shovels. — Ordinary shovels will be very useful in re- 
moving the earth, when the ditch is not less than one foot 
in width. They should be mnde of the best material and 

(387) 



888 LAND DRAINAGE. 

strongly braced by two slips of iron, extending some dis- 
tance up the handle from the socket. The long-handled, 
pointed, scoop shovel, in common use on our railroads, 
will be found very useful in removing light soil or gravel, 
after being turned up with the pick. 

Spades. — Three spades are all that are necessary. 
These should be of different sizes, gradually diminishing 
in width, to suit different depths. When the ground con- 
tains stones, or other impediments, they should be made 
perfectly fiat, as in Figs. 59, 60, and 61 (preceding page). 
When the soil is free from all impediments, a curved form, 
represented in Fig. 63, will be found advantageous. 

Morton, in the Cyelopcedia of Agriculture, gives the 
spades. Figs. 61, 62, and 63, as those most in general use, 
for digging the last, or lowest portions of the drain. 



Pig. 65. 



Fig. 64 represents abroad and curved shovel, somewhat 
triangular in shape, with a bent handle. This is used for 
removing dirt from large drains. 



DRAINING TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 



380 



jScoops. — For removing the soil from the bottom, and 
shaping out the ditch for the reception of the tile, scoops 
are necessary. For small and narrow ditches, differ- 
ent forms are used, as shown in Figs. 67 and 70. These 
are to be used standing on the surface of the ground. 
The instrument shown in Fig. 70, is especially adapted to 
fitting the bottom for round tiles or pipes. 







Fig. 67. Fio. 08. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. 

When the ditches are made with flat bottoms, such a 
tool as represented by Fig. 68 is used for scooping it out. 
Where the bottom is soft, or the crumbs mixed with water, 



390 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



a similar tool, with the sides turned up, as represented by 
Fig. 69, is used to clean out the ditch. 

Picks. — Where the subsoil is stony, or hard-pan, a pick 
will be necessary to loosen it. The dirt is then removed 
with the long scoop shovel. The common pick (Figs. 71 




FiQ. 71. Fig. 72. Fio. 73. 

and 72) is all that is necessary for this purpose, though, 
in some cases, a foot pick (Fig. 73) may be advantageously 
used. 

Pickaxes may be made either heavy or light, as suits 
the workman. They should be strongly made, and the 
usual form, with a pick at one end and chisel at the other, 
is best. 

Pipe layer is a convenient tool ; the handle is long and 
light, like that of a rake ; from the end of this passes a 
stout piece of iron wire or rod, a foot in length, and hav- 
ing a direction almost at right angles with the handle. 
This is for the purpose of laying the tiles or pipes into 
the drain ; and, if the drains are made as narrow as they 
ought to be, it will then b.e not only convenient but highly 



DRAINING TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 



391 



useful. It is better understood by reference to the cut 
(Fig. 74) than from description. 







Fia. 74 — Pipe lateb. 



Fig. 75 



Drain gauge. — This necessary though simple instru- 
ment is shown in Figs. 75 and 76. It should be strongly 
made, not liable to be altered, either by accident or de- 
sign on the part of the workman. It may be constructed 
according to either figure, and shows both the depth of the 
drain and its width at top and bottom. If stones are used, 
it may be made to show the depth of filling. 

A water level is the first instrument of which one who 



392 LAND DRAINAGE. 

has lands to drain should possess himself. This need not 
be an expensive article, for one of very simple construc- 
tion -will answer every purpose. Take a piece of lead 
pipe, two or three feet in length, and about half an inch 
in bore, bend up an inch or two at each end to a right 
angle ; then take a small glass phial that will slip into the 
tube, break off the bottom, which may easily be done by 
making a crease round on the corner of a grindstone; then 
secure the phial in the tube with sealing Avax ; both ends 
are to be fixed alike. The level should be fastened to a 
small piece of wood, to give it stiffness and security. A 
nail, or screw, or peg, is put through the middle of the 
wood, just on one side of the lead pipe, to serve as a pivot 
in directing the instrument. For a tripod, three notches 
may be made in a little block of wood, and each leg se- 
cured by a nail, so as to make a movable joint ; then bore 
a hole in the top of the block, to receive the pivot of the 
level. When about to be used, the level is filled with 
colored water, about half way up both phials, which are 
then corked, so that it may be carried about. When the 
level is put on the tripod, and as near right as can be 
guessed, the corks are removed, and the fluid in the phials 
stands at a water level. There is then no difiiculty in 
obtaining accurate levels in any direction. Instead of the 
lead pipe, a glass tube may be substituted, and the ends 
bent up, after heating in a spirit lamp. Descriptions and 
plates of this water level are given in " Thomas on Farm 
Implements,^'' ^^3Iunn^s Practical Drainer" and in the 
'"'■Register of Rural Affairs." It is much better to use a 
level in laying out all draining work than to depend on 
the best estimates otherwise obtained. It is not only de- 
sirable to know the lowest points of the field to be drain- 
ed, and the highest, but also to know the exact diflference 
in inches, in order to have the fall regular and uniform. 




DRAINING TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 393 

A span level is the best instrument for determining the 
exact fall in a drain that is being dug when no water is 
present. Three narrow strips of board are required, each 
about six feet in length ; 
these are nailed together in 
the form of the letter A, the 
span or stretch being ex- 
actly half a rod. (See Fig. 
77). From a nail or pin at „ »„ „ ^ 

'' /^ Fig. 77— Span Level. 

the top a plummet is sus- 
pended. It is then placed, for the purpose of marking, 
upon a floor or piece of timber, which is perfectly level, 
and the place where the plumb line touches the cross bar 
marked ; one foot is then raised one fourth of an inch, 
and the place where the line crosses the bar again marked, 
and will show a rise or fall one half inch to the rod. 
The foot is then raised to half an inch and the bar 
marked, indicating one inch to the rod. These mark- 
ings can be made to any extent desired, and the in- 
strument, by dropping it into the drain occasionally, will 
show that the drain is dug with uniform fall, and precisely 
that determined on at the outset. 

We have not aimed at prescribing a set of tools which 
are absolutely necessary, being too well acquainted with 
the genius of the western people, and knowing too well 
that they will make almost any kind of tool answer the 
purpose ; but we deemed it necessary to give a general 
description of the tools employed by expert drainers. 



CHAPTEK XI. 



DIGGING UNDERDRAINS. 

After proper levels have been taken, and the rate of tall 
ascertained, the digging may commence, the workman 
being kept straight by a line, as represented in Fig. 78. 

in 



..«i'j>>\.' 




The dotted line represents the bottom of the drain ; the 
dotted lines forming a triangle, or wedge-shape, represents 
a section of the ditch, as seen from the body of the ditch. 
Every three or four rods, two narrow boards, having a slit 
sawed in from the upper end, should be placed on a line 
with the center of the ditch. A lin$ is then placed in the 
slit of the board, at the end of the ditch, and continued 
to the other board, supported by frames or braces resem- 
bling on iron square — these latter are placed at the side 
of the ditch, and the line suspended over the projecting 
arm, to keep it taut, or to prevent it from " saggi7ig." If 
the line is properly placed it will always enable the work- 
man to ascertain whether the drain is of the proper depth, 
because the distance from the line to the bottom of the 

*This cut is from French's work — but the plan has been adopted by ditchers in Ohio 
during the past twenty-five years. 
(394) 



DiattlNa UNDERDRAINS. 



395 











drain must always be precisely the same, whether the sur- 
face of the ground is level or full of undulations. 

Without some care, a ditch will not be dug straight even 
where a line is used, for in passing over swells or eleva- 
tions, if the surface of the top is not removed enough 
wider to allow for the regular slope of the sides, the bot- 
tom will not be straight, or the sides will be too perdicu- 
lar. To correct this latter difficulty, a draining gauge, 
Fig. 79 or 80, is employed. These gauges consist of an 
upright wooden strip, say, four 
feet in length, with a foot at the 
bottom, the precise width of the 
tile to be laid ; and near the top a 
cross piece, the length of which is 
the exact width of the drain. 
Where great precision in the slope 
of the sides is required a central 
cross piece, as in Fig. 79, having 
for its length the exact width of 
the drain at that point, or rather 
a mean between the foot piece and 
upper cross piece. 

The first spit, or spade depth 
of turf, or surface soil, is usually 
removed by a common spade ; a stronger one being re- 
quired than would be chosen for gardening purposes. The 
width of the drain, on the top, must always depend on 
the depth required ; skillful drainers dig a much narrower 
drain than the unskilled. The narrowness of the drain 
is an advantage, there being less earth to throw out, and 
of course less to return. For a depth of three feet, one 
foot on top is abundantly wide, and many drains would 
not require so much. The crumbs are all shoveled out 
with a common shovel. It is usual, at this stage of the 



Fig. 79. 



Fio. 80. 



396 LAND DRAINAGE. 

work, to bring the bottom of the drain to its true level, 
at least so far as to correct any noticeable unevenness of 
the surface. The span level before described must be used 
occasionally, unless water be present. Sometimes a turf 
of only a few inches is taken off before the first full spit 
is dug. 

The second spit is dug with the narrower spade or proper 
draining tool, and the crumbs are removed by a draw 
scoop ; or a long handled shovel, with the sides turned up, 
will answer very well. The removal of the second spit 
brings the drain to two feet in depth, and seven inches in 
width on the bottom, unless greater width and depth are 
required. The third and last spit of a three feet drain is 
cut with the same narrow spade as the second, or one still 
narrower. The bottom is made of the exact width of the 
tiles to be put in, and when these are less than four inches 
across outside, the tool must be narrower ; or if it be re- 
quired to cut a channel three inches wide on the bottom, 
with a tool four inches in width, this is readily done, where 
the tool is a little curved, by holding it obliquely, instead 
of transversely across the drain. The crumbs are re- 
moved, and the bottom fitted for the tiles with the draw 
scoop. The drainer never sets his foot on the bottom of 
a narrow drain; in fact, he could not get it there. What- 
ever the size of the tile used, that must be the width of 
the bottom of the drain ; there should be just room to ad- 
mit the tile, but not the least possibility of its getting out 
of place. 

New beginners in digging drains, as a general thing, 
remove double the quantity of earth necessary to make 
the drain. This is an error, however, which generally 
corrects itself by practice. Some drainers prefer making 
the ditch, say 18 inches wide at the top, and give the 
sides c. Fig. 81, a gentle slope, until a depth of two feet 



DIGGING UNDERDRAINS. 



397 




is attained — leaving the bottom of the ditch, 6, h, fourteen 
or fifteen inches wide. This part of the ditch may be 
made ^\ith the ordinary spade, Figs. 59, or 60. Then 
the narrow spade, Figs. 61, 62 
or 65, is used to excavate the re- 
maining foot of earth, a; this 
leaves the bottom, 2, 3, or 4 
inches wide — according to the 
tool used — and just the size for 
the tile. When this style of 
ditching is adopted, the tools, 
Figs. 67 and 70 are used to clear 
the bottom of all pieces of ground 
which may have fallen in, as well 
as to remove any inequalities in 
the bottom. The tile is then 
taken up with the short arm of 
*^"'- ■^^^ the pipe layer, Fig. 74, laid in 

the bottom of the ditch and properly adjusted. 

Alderman Mechi, says : 

" On Digging a Drain. — Before I proceed to describe my mode 
of digging, I will remark that a very great mistake is made by most 
drainers in removing more earth than is necessary. My men, for a 
5-feet drain, only open the surface 18 inches wide, and at 4 feet they 
can do it in 12 to 14 inches ; at 6 feet deep they allow themselves 
22 inches ; this is when the land is tolerably dry ; when very wet 
and adhesive, they sometimes allow themselves an inch or two more, 
to prevent the earth touching their clothes. As they are paid by 
the piece, they are very particular not to remove a bit more earth 
than is absolutely necessary. In stony and hard soils, requiring the 
frequent use of the pickaxe, the workmen require rather a wider 
opening; but even so deep as 6 feet deep, it is seldom necessary to 
open 2 feet wide. It must always be borne in mind that the pipes 
can not be placed by the hand in such narrow drains, the bottom not 
being 2 inches wide. The drainers have a stick with a piece of iron 
like a long cock's spur, on which, they place the pipe, and standino 



398 LAND DRAINAGE. 

astride on the top of the opening, place the pipes abutting against 
each other in a continuous line, giving them a tap or two to set 
them firm in their places. Great care is required to scoop out all 
the crumbs, leaving the bottom of the drain smooth, with a sufficient 
fall. The bottom of the drain should not be wider, if possible, than 
the outside diameter of the pipe ; it is thus kept firmly in its place. 
A common carpenter's level answers very well ; but the workmen 
are generally sure to give fall enough to spare their labor in going 
too deep. We never plow out for the laborers. They stretch a gar- 
den line, so as to open their work straight and trua The ordinary 
spades are not at all calculated or proper for draining in tenacious 
soils. We use the patent grafting tools, made by Mr. Lyndon, of 
Birmingham ; they are thin, well plated with steel, and ring like a 
bell, and will go easily into hard clays, when the common spades 
could not be used at all. They may he had of Mr. Lyndon direct, 
or ordered through the iron-mongers. The middle spits are removed 
by a narrow three quarter spade, with a projecting iron for the foot; 
and the lowest spit is taken out by a long 14-inch dagger-like spade, 
with two cutting edges, a sharp point, and an iron rest for the foot; 
this is worked edgewise first, and then removes a considerable thin, 
but broad deep mass. The scoop follows for the crumbs. All these 
tools may be had of Mr. Lyndon." 

As digging ditches for drains is frequently done by 
contract, "5^ the job " or by the rod, Ave have deemed it 
proper to insert the following table, giving the number of 
cubic yards of earth to be removed in digging ditches : 



DIGGING UNDERDRAINS. 



399 



CUBIC YARDS OP DIGGING IN DRAINS. 
Depth 2 feet 6 inches. 



■5, 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


□ 


9 




10 


11 




1 toot. 


1 toot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


3 


inches. 


inch 


es. 


inches. 






6 ini 


hes. 






6 iuclies. 




Yards. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Vz 




3 




3 




3 




4 




6 




7 




9 


11 


1 




6 




6 




7 




7 




11 




15 




19 


22 


2 




11 




12 




14 




15 




22 


1 


3 


1 


10 


1 18 


3 




17 




19 




21 




22 


1 


7 


1 


18 


2 


2 


2 13 


4 




22 




25 


1 




1 


3 


1 


18 


2 


6 


2 


21 


3 9 


5 




1 


1 


4 


1 


7 


1 


10 


2 


2 


2 


21 


3 


13 


4 4 


6 




7 


1 


10 


1 


14 


1 


18 


2 


13 


3 


9 


4 


4 


5 


7 




12 


1 


17 


1 


21 


1 


25 


2 


25 


3 


24 


4 


23 


5 22 


8 




18 


1 


23 


2 


1 


2 


6 


3 


9 


4 


12 


5 


15 


6 18 


9 




24 


2 


2 


2 


8 


2 


13 


3 


20 


5 




6 


7 


7 13 


10 


2 


2 


2 


8 


2 


15 


2 


21 


4 


4 


5 


15 


6 


25 


8 9 


H 


2 


8 


2 


15 


2 


22 


3 


1 


4 


16 


C 


3 


7 


17 


9 4 


12 


2 


13 


2 


21 


3 


1 


3 


9 


5 




6 


18 


8 


9 


10 


13 


2 


19 


3 




3 


8 


3 


16 


5 


11 


7 


6 


9 


1 


10 22 


14 


2 


25 


3 


6 


3 


15 


3 


24 


5 


22 


7 


21 


9 


19 


11 18 


15 


3 


3 


3 


13 


3 


22 


4 


4 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 13 


25 


5 


C 


5 


21 


6 


10 


6 


25 


10 


11 


13 


24 


17 


10 


20 22 


40 


8 


9 


9 


7 


10 


5 


11 


3 


16 


18 


22 


6 


27 


21 


33 9 


55 


11 


12 


12 


20 


14 




15 


7 


22 


25 


30 


15 


38 


5 


45 22 


70 


14 


16 


IG 


5 


17 


22 


19 


12 


29 


4 


38 


24 


48 


16 


58 9 


85 


17 


19 


19 


18 


21 


17 


23 


16 


35 


11 


47 


6 


59 


1 


70 22 


100 


20 


22 


23 


4 


25 


12 


27 


21 


41 


18 


55 


15 


69 


12 


83 


200 


41 


18 


4G 


8 


50 


25 


55 


15 


83 


9 


111 


3 


138 


24 


160 18 


500 


104 


4 


115 


20 


127 


8 


138 


24 


2(18 


9 


277 


21 


347 


6 


416 18 


1000 


208 


9 


321 


13 


354 


17 


277 


21 


416 


18 


555 


15 


694 


12 


833 9 



Depth 2 feet 9 inches. 



a 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


9 




10 


11 




1 foot. 


1 foot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 




inches. 


inches. 


inches. 






6 inches. 






6 inches. 




Yards. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. ft. 


% 




3 




3 




4 




4 


6 




8 


10 


12 


1 




6 




7 




8 




8 


12 




16 


21 


25 


2 




12 




14 




15 




16 


25 


1 


6 


1 14 


1 25 


3 




19 




21 




23 




25 


1 10 


1 


22 


2 8 


2 20 


4 




25 


1 




1 


3 


1 


G 


1 22 


2 


12 


3 1 


3 18 


5 


1 


4 


1 


7 


1 


U 


1 


14 


2 8 


3 


1 


3 22 


4 10 


6 


1 


10 


1 


14 


1 


18 


1 


22 


2 20 


3 


18 


4 16 


5 13 


7 


1 


16 


1 


21 


1 


26 


2 


4 


3 6 


4 


7 


5 9 


6 11 


8 


1 


22 


2 


1 


2 


6 


2 


12 


3 18 


4 


24 


6 3 


7 9 


9 


2 


2 


2 


8 


2 


14 


2 


20 


4 3 


5 


13 


6 24 


8 7 


10 


2 


8 


2 


15 


2 


22 


3 


1 


4 16 


6 


3 


7 17 


9 4 


11 


2 


14 


2 


22 


3 


2 


3 


10 


5 1 


() 


19 


8 11 


10 2 


12 


2 


20 


3 


1 


3 


10 


3 


18 


5 13 


7 


9 


9 4 


11 


13 


2 


26 


3 


8 


3 


17 


3 


26 


5 26 


7 


25 


9 25 


n 25 


14 


3 


6 


3 


15 


3 


25 


4 


7 


6 11 


8 


15 


10 19 


12 22 


15 


3 


12 


3 


22 


4 


5 


4 


16 


6 24 


9 


4 


11 12 


13 20 


25 


5 


20 


6 


10 


7 




7 


17 


11 12 


15 


7 


19 3 


22 25 


40 


9 


4 


10 


5 


11 


5 


12 


6 


18 9 


24 


12 


30 15 


36 18 


55 


12 


16 


14 




15 


11 


16 


22 


25 6 


33 


16 


42 


50 11 


70 


16 


1 


17 


22 


19 


16 


21 


10 


32 2 


42 


21 


53 13 


64 4 


85 


19 


13 


21 


17 


23 


22 


25 


26 


38 26 


51 


25 


C4 25 


77 25 


100 


22 


25 


25 


12 


28 




30 


15 


45 22 


61 


3 


76 10 


91 18 


200 


45 


22 


50 


25 


56 




61 


3 


91 18 


122 


6 


152 21 


183 9 


500 


114 


16 


127 


8 


140 


1 


152 


21 


229 4 


305 


15 


381 25 


458 9 


1000 


229 


4 


254 


17 


2S0 


2 


305 


15 


4.''.8 9 


611 


3 


763 24 


916 18 



400 LAND DRAINAGE. 

CUBIC YARDS OF DIGGING IN DRAINS. 
Depth 3 feet. 



^ 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


fcC 

s 


9 




10 


11 


1 foot. 


1 foot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


)3 


inches. 


inches. 


inches. 






6 inc. 


hes. 






6 inches. 




Yards. 


Yds. 


It. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. ft. 


% 




3 


4 


4 




4 




7 




9 


11 


13 


1 




7 


7 


8 




9 




13 




18 


22 


1 


2 




13 


15 


k; 




18 


1 




1 


9 


1 18 


2 


3 




20 


22 


2r> 


1 




1 


13 


2 




2 13 


3 


4 


1 




1 3 


1 i; 


1 


9 


2 




2 


18 


3 9 


4 


5 


1 


7 


1 10 


1 14 


1 


IS 


2 


13 


3 


9 


4 4 


5 


G 


1 


13 


1 18 


1 22 


2 




3 




4 




5 


6 


7 


1 


20 


1 2>; 


2 4 


2 


9 


3 


13 


4 


18 


5 22 


7 


8 


2 




2 U 


2 12 


2 


18 


4 




5 


9 


G 18 


8 


9 


2 


7 


2 13 


2 'ZO 


3 




4 


13 







7 13 


9 


10 


2 


13 


2 21 


3 1 


3 


9 


5 




ti 


18 


8 9 


10 


11 


2 


20 


3 1 


3 111 


3 


18 


5 


13 


7 


9 


9 4 


11 


12 


3 




3 9 


3 18 


4 









8 




10 


12 


13 


3 


7 


3 10 


3 21) 


4 


9 





13 


8 


18 


10 22 


13 


14 


3 


13 


3 24 


4 7 


4 


18 


7 




9 


9 


11 18 


14 


15 


3 


20 


4 4 


4 10 


5 




7 


13 


10 




13 13 


15 


25 


6 


7 


25 


7 18 


8 


9 


12 


13 


16 


18 


20 22 


25 


40 


10 




11 3 


12 a 


13 


9 


20 




26 


18 


33 9 


40 


55 


13 


20 


15 7 


ItJ 22 


18 


9 


27 


13 


36 


18 


42 22 


55 


70 


17 


13 


19 12 


21 10 


23 


9 


35 




46 


18 


58 9 


70 


85 


21 


7 


23 16 


25 20 


20 


9 


42 


13 


56 


18 


70 22 


85 


100 


25 




27 21 


30 15 


33 


9 


50 




66 


18 


83 9 


100 


200 


50 




55 15 


01 3 


OO 


18 


100 




133 


9 


166 18 


200 


500 


125 




138 24 


152 21 


1(JC 


18 


250 




333 


9 


416 18 


500 


1000 


250 




277 21 


305 15 


333 


9 


,".0U 




666 


18 


833 9 


1000 



Depth 3 feet 3 inches. 



J3 

"So 

a 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Wi 


1th 


Width 


Wi 


Jth 


Width 


9 




10 


11 


1 foot. 


1 foot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


^ 


inches. 


inches. 


inches. 






6 inclies. 






6 inclies. 




Yards. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


ii 




4 




4 




4 




5 




7 




10 




12 


15 


1 




7 




8 




9 




10 




15 




19 




24 


1 2 


2 




15 




16 




18 




19 


1 


2 


1 


12 


1 


22 


2 4 


3 




22 




24 


1 




1 


2 


1 


17 


2 


4 


2 


19 


3 7 


4 


1 


2 


1 


5 


1 


9 


1 


12 


2 


4 


2 


24 


3 


16 


4 9 





1 


10 


1 


14 


1 


18 


1 


22 


2 


19 


3 


16 


4 


14 


5 U 


6 


1 


17 


1 


22 


2 




2 


4 


3 


7 


4 


9 


5 


11 


6 13 


7 


1 


24 


2 


3 


2 


9 


2 


14 


3 


21 


5 


1 


6 


9 


7 16 


8 


2 


4 


2 


11 


2 


17 


2 


24 


4 


9 


5 


21 


7 


6 


8 18 


9 


2 


12 


2 


19 


2 


26 


3 


7 


4 


24 


6 


13 


8 


3 


9 20 


10 


2 


19 


3 




3 


8 


3 


16 


5 


11 


7 


G 


9 


1 


10 22 


11 


2 


2(5 


3 


8 


3 


17 


3 


26 


5 


26 


7 


25 


9 


25 


11 25 


12 


3 


7 


3 


16 


3 


26 


4 


9 


6 


13 


8 


18 


10 


22 


13 


13 


3 


14 


3 


25 


4 


8 


4 


19 


7 


1 


9 


10 


11 


20 


14 2 


14 


3 


21 


4 





4 


17 


5 


1 


7 


16 


10 


3 


12 


17 


15 4 


15 


4 


2 


4 


14 


4 


26 


5 


11 


8 


3 


10 


22 


13 


15 


16 7 


25 


6 


21 


7 


14 


8 


7 


9 


1 


13 


15 


18 


1 


22 


15 


27 2 


40 


10 


22 


12 


1 


13 


6 


14 


12 


21 


18 


28 


24 


36 


3 


43 9 


55 


14 


24 


16 


15 


18 


6 


19 


23 


29 


21 


39 


19 


49 


18 


59 16 


70 


18 


26 


21 


2 


23 


5 


25 


7 


37 


25 


51 


15 


63 


5 


75 22 


85 


23 


1 


25 


16 


28 


4 


30 


19 


46 


1 


61 


10 


76 


20 


92 2 


100 


27 


2 


30 


2 


33 


3 


36 


3 


54 


4 


72 


6 


90 


7 


108 9 


200 


54 


4 


60 


5 


66 


5 


72 


6 


108 


9 


144 


12 


180 


15 


216 18 


500 


135 


11 


150 


12 


165 


14 


180 


15 


270 


22 


361 


3 


451 


10 


541 18 


1000 


270 


22 


300 


25 


331 




361 


3 


541 


18 


722 


6 


902 


21 


1083 9 



DIGGING UNDERDRAINS. 



401 



CUBIC YARDS OF DIGGING IN DRAINS. 
Depth 3 feet 6 inches. 



.a 
■ft 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


a 


£ 




11 




11 




1 foot. 


Ifoot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


^^ 


inches. 


inches. 


inches. 






6 inches. 






6 inches. 




Yards. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. ft. 


v. 




4 




4 




5 




5 




8 




10 


13 


16 


1 




8 




9 




10 




10 




IG 




21 


26 


1 4 


2 




16 




17 




19 




21 


1 


4 


1 


15 


1 25 


2 9 


3 




24 




26 


1 


2 


1 


4 


1 


20 


2 


9 


2 25 


3 13 


i 


1 


4 


1 


8 


1 


11 


1 


15 


2 


9 


3 


3 


3 24 


4 18 


5 


1 


12 


1 


17 


1 


21 


1 


25 


2 


25 


3 


24 


4 23 


5 22 


6 


1 


20 


1 


25 


2 


4 


2 


9 


3 


13 


4 


18 


5 22 


7 


7 


2 


1 


2 


7 


2 


13 


2 


19 


4 


2 


5 


12 


6 22 


8 4 


8 


2 


9 


2 


16 


2 


23 


3 


3 


4 


18 


() 


6 


7 21 


9 9 


9 


2 


17 


2 


25 


3 


6 


3 


13 


5 


7 


7 




8 20 


10 13 


10 


2 


25 


3 


6 


3 


15 


3 


24 


5 


22 


7 


21 


9 19 


11 18 


11 


3 


6 


3 


15 


3 


25 


4 


7 


6 


11 


8 


15 


10 19 


12 22 


12 


3 


13 


3 


24 


4 


1 


4 


18 


7 




9 


9 


11 18 


14 


13 


3 


21 


4 


6 


4 


17 


5 


1 


7 


16 


10 


3 


12 17 


15 4 


14 


4 


2 


4 


14 


5 




5 


12 


8 


4 


10 


24 


13 16 


16 9 


15 


4 


10 


4 


23 


5 


9 


5 


22 


8 


20 


11 


18 


14 16 


17 13 


25 


7 


8 


8 


3 


8 


25 


9 


19 


14 


16 


19 


12 


24 8 


29 4 


40 


11 


18 


12 


2r. 


14 


7 


15 


15 


23 


9 


31 


3 


38 24 


46 18 


55 


16 


1 


17 


22 


19 


16 


21 


10 


32 


2 


42 


21 


53 13 


64 4 


70 


20 


11 


22 


18 


24 


26 


27 


6 


40 


22 


54 


12 


OS 1 


81 18 


85 


24 


21 


27 


15 


30 


8 


33 


1 


40 


16 


66 


3 


82 17 


99 4 


100 


20 


4 


32 


11 


35 


17 


38 


24 


58 


9 


77 


21 


97 6 


110 18 


200 


58 


9 


04 


22 


71 


8 


77 


21 


116 


18 


155 


15 


194 12 


233 9 


500 


145 


22 


162 


1 


178 


6 


194 


12 


291 


18 


388 


24 


486 . 3 


583 9 


1000 


291 


18 


sai 


2 


35(5 


13 


388 


24 


583 


9 


777 


21 


972 6 


1166 18 



, Depth 3 feet 9 inches. 





Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


9 




IC 




11 




1 foot. 


1 foot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


P 


inches. 


inches. 


inches. 






6 inches. 






6 inches. 




Yards. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. ft. 


X 




4 




5 




5 




6 


8 




11 


14 


17 


1 




8 




9 




10 




11 


17 




22 


1 1 


1 7 


2 




17 




19 




21 




22 


1 7 


1 


18 


2 2 


2 13 


3 




25 


1 


1 


1 


4 


1 


7 


1 24 


2 


13 


3 3 


3 20 


4 


1 


7 


1 


10 


1 


14 


1 


18 


2 13 


3 


9 


4 4 


5 


5 


1 


15 


1 


20 


I 


25 


2 


2 


3 3 


4 


4 


5 6 


6 7 


6 


1 


24 


2 


2 


2 


8 


2 


13 


3 20 


5 




6 7 


7 13 


7 


2 


5 


2 


12 


2 


18 


2 


25 


4 10 


5 


22 


7 8 


8 20 


8 


2 


13 


2 


21 


3 


1 


3 


9 


5 


6 


18 


8 9 


10 


9 


2 


22 


3 


3 


3 


12 


3 


20 


5 17 


7 


13 


9 10 


11 7 


10 


3 


3 


3 


13 


3 


22 


4 


4 


6 7 


8 


9 


10 11 


12 13 


11 


3 


12 


3 


22 


4 


5 


4 


16 


6 24 


9 


4 


11 12 


13 20 


12 


3 


20 


4 


4 


4 


16 


5 




7 13 


10 




12 13 


15 


13 


4 


2 


4 


14 


4 


26 





11 


8 3 


10 


22 


13 15 


16 7 


14 


4 


10 


4 


23 


5 


9 


5 


22 


8 20 


11 


18 


14 16 


17 13 


15 


4 


19 


5 


6 


5 


20 


6 


7 


9 10 


12 


13 


15 17 


18 20 


25 


7 


22 


8 


18 


9 


15 


10 


11 


15 17 


20 


22 


26 1 


31 7 


40 


12 


13 


13 


24 


15 


7 


16 


18 


25 


33 


9 


41 18 


50 


55 


17 


5 


19 


3 


21 




22 


25 


34 10 


45 


22 


57 8 


68 20 


70 


21 


24 


24 


8 


26 


20 


29 


4 


43 20 


58 


9 


72 25 


87 13 


85 


26 


15 


29 


14 


32 


13 


35 


11 


53 3 


70 


2i 


88 15 


106 7 


100 


31 


7 


34 


19 


38 


5 


41 


18 


62 13 


83 


9 


104 4 


125 


200 


02 


13 


69 


12 


70 


10 


83 


9 


125 


l6(i 


18 


20S 9 


250 


500 


156 


7 


173 


16 


190 


26 


208 


9 


312 13 


416 


IS 


520 22 


625 


1000 


313 


31 


347 


li 


381 


25 


416 


IS 


625 


833 


9 


i04l IX 


1250 



35 



402 



LAND DRAINAGE, 



CUBIC YARDS OP DIGGING IN DRAINS. 
Depth 4 feet. 



■a 


Width 


Widtli 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


9 




10 


11 


1 ft 


ut. 


1 foot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


k! 


inches. 


inches. 


iuches. 






C inches. 






inches. 




Yards. 


Yds. 


ft, 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


H 




4 




5 




5 




fl 




9 




12 




15 


18 




9 




10 




11 




12 




18 




24 


1 


3 


1 9 


2 




IS 




20 




22 




24 


1 


9 


1 


21 


2 





2 18 


3 


1 




1 


3 


1 


6 


1 


9 


2 




2 


18 


3 


9 


4 


4 


1 


9 


1 


13 


1 


17 


1 


21 


2 


18 


3 


15 


4 


12 


5 9 


5 


1 


18 


1 


23 


2 


1 


2 


6 


3 


9 


4 


12 


6 


15 


6 18 


e 


2 




2 


6 


2 


12 


2 


18 


4 




5 


9 


6 


18 


8 


7 


2 


9 


2 


10 


2 


23 


3 


3 


4 


IS 


6 


6 


7 


21 


9 9 


8 


2 


18 


2 


26 


3 


7 


3 


15 


5 


9 


7 


3 


8 


24 


10 18 


9 


3 




3 


9 


3 


18 


4 




6 




8 




10 




12 


10 


3 


9 


3 


19 


4 


2 


4 


12 


6 


18 


8 


24 


11 


3 


13 9 


11 


3 


18 


4 


2 


4 


13 


4 


24 


7 


9 


9 


21 


12 


6 


14 18 


12 


4 




4 


12 


4 


24 


5 


9 


8 




10 


18 


13 


9 


16 


13 


4 


9 


4 


22 


5 


8 


5 


21 


8 


18 


11 


15 


14 


12 


17 9 


14 


4 


18 


5 


5 


5 


19 





6 


9 


9 


12 


12 


15 


15 


18 18 


15 


5 




5 


15 


6 


3 


6 


Mi 


lo 




13 


9 


16 


18 


20 


25 


8 


9 


9 


7 


10 


f) 


11 


3 


16 


18 


22 





27 


21 


33 9 


40 


13 


9 


14 


22 


16 


8 


17 


21 


26 


18 


35 


15 


44 


12 


53 9 


55 


18 


9 


20 


10 


22 


11 


24 


12 


36 


18 


48 


24 


(;i 


3 


73 9 


70 


23 


9 


25 


25 


28 


14 


31 


3 


46 


18 


02 


6 


77 


21 


93 9 


85 


28 


9 


31 


13 


34 


17 


37 


21 


5(j 


18 


75 


15 


94 


12 


113 9 


100 


33 


9 


37 


1 


40 


20 


44 


12 


oi; 


IS 


88 


24 


111 


3 


133 9 


200 


66 


IS 


74 


2 


81 


13 


8H 


24 


13 


9 


177 


21 


222 


6 


2(i6 18 


500 


10(1 


18 


185 


5 


203 


19 


222 





333 


9 


44+ 


12 


.^55 


15 


666 18 


lOUO 


333 


9 


370 


10 


407 


11 


444 


12 


666 


18 


888 


24 


1111 


3 


1333 9 



Depth 4 feet 6 inches. 



a 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


9 




10 


11 


1 foot. 


1 foot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


k; 


incl 


es. 


inches. 


inches. 






6 inches. 




6 inches. 




Yards. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. ft. 


K 




5 




() 


6 




7 


10 


13 


17 


20 


1 




10 




11 


12 




13 


20 


1 


1 7 


1 13 


2 




20 




22 


25 


1 




1 13 


2 


2 13 


3 


3 


1 


3 


1 


7 


1 10 


1 


13 


2 7 


3 


3 20 


4 13 


4 


1 


13 


1 


IS 


1 22 


2 




3 


4 


5 


C 


5 


1 


24 


2 


2 


2 8 


2 


13 


3 20 


5 


6 7 


7 13 


6 


2 


7 


2 


13 


2 20 


3 




4 13 


6 


7 13 


9 


7 


2 


17 


2 


25 


3 6 


3 


13 


5 7 


7 


8 20 


10 13 


8 


3 




3 


9 


3 18 


4 




6 


8 


10 


12 


9 


3 


10 


3 


20 


4 3 


4 


13 


6 20 


9 


11 7 


13 13 


10 


3 


20 


4 


4 


4 16 


5 




7 13 


10 


12 13 


15 


11 


4 


3 


4 


16 


5 1 


5 


13 


8 7 


11 


13 20 


16 13 


12 


4 


13 


5 




5 13 


6 




9 


12 


15 


18 


13 


4 


24 


5 


11 


5 26 


() 


13 


9 20 


13 


16 7 


19 13 


14 


5 


7 


5 


22 


6 11 


7 




10 13 


14 


17 13 


21 


15 


5 


17 





7 


6 24 


7 


13 


11 7 


15 


18 20 


22 13 


25 


9 


10 


10 


11 


11 12 


12 


13 


18 20 


25 


31 7 


37 13 


40 


15 




16 


18 


18 9 


20 




30 


40 


50 


60 


55 


20 


17 


22 


25 


25 6 


27 


13 


41 7 


55 


68 20 


82 13 


70 


26 


7 


29 


4 


32 2 


35 




52 13 


70 


87 13 


105 


85 


31 


24 


35 


11 


38 26 


42 


13 


63 20 


85 


106 7 


127 13 


100 


37 


13 


41 


18 


45 22 


50 




75 


100 


125 


150 


200 


75 




83 


n 


91 18 


100 




1.50 


200 


250 


300 


5(10 


187 


13 


208 


ft 


229 4 


250 




375 


500 


626 


750 


10(J0 


375 




416 


18 


458 9 


500 




7.^.0 


1000 


1250 


1500 



DIGGING UNDERDRAINS. 



403 



CUBIC YARDS OF DIGGING IN DRAINS. 
Depth 5 feet. 



a 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


9 




11 




11 




1 foot. 


1 foot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


i3 


inches. 


inches. 


inches. 






6 inches. 






6 inches. 




Yiirdi'. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Vi 




6 




6 




7 




7 


11 




15 


19 


22 


1 




11 




12 




14 




15 


22 


1 


3 


1 10 


1 18 


2 




22 




25 


1 




1 


3 


1 18 


2 


6 


2 21 


3 9 


3 


1 


7 


1 


10 


1 


14 


1 


18 


2 13 


3 


9 


4 4 


5 


4 


1 


18 


1 


23 


2 


1 


2 


6 


3 9 


4 


12 


5 15 


6 18 


5 


2 


2 


2 


8 


2 


15 


2 


21 


4 4 


5 


15 


6 25 


8 9 


6 


2 


13 


2 


21 


3 


1 


3 


9 


5 


G 


18 


8 9 


10 


7 


2 


25 


3 


6 


3 


15 


3 


24 


5 22 


7 


21 


9 19 


11 18 


8 


3 


d 


3 


19 


4 


2 


4 


12 


6 18 


8 


24 


11 3 


13 9 


9 


3 


20 


4 


4 


4 


16 


5 




7 13 


10 




12 13 


15 


10 


4 


4 


4 


17 


5 


2 


5 


15 


8 9 


11 


3 


13 24 


16 18 


11 


4 


16 


5 


2 


'5 


16 


6 


3 


9 4 


12 


6 


15 7 


18 9 


12 


5 




5 


15 


6 


3 


6 


18 


10 


13 


9 


16 IS 


20 


13 


5 


11 


6 




6 


17 


7 


6 


10 22 


14 


12 


18 1 


21 18 


14 


5 


22 


6 


13 


7 


3 


7 


21 


11 18 


15 


15 


19 12 


23 9 


15 


6 


7 


6 


25 


7 


17 


8 


9 


12 13 


16 


18 


20 22 


25 


25 


10 


11 


11 


15 


12 


20 


13 


24 


20 22 


27 


21 


34 19 


41 18 


40 


16 


18 


18 


14 


20 


10 


22 


6 


33 9 


44 


12 


55 15 


G6 18 


55 


22 


25 


25 


12 


28 




30 


16 


45 22 


61 


3 


76 10 


91 18 


70 


29 


4 


32 


11 


35 


17 


38 


24 


68 9 


77 


21 


97 G 


116 18 


85 


35 


11 


39 


9 


43 


8 


47 


6 


70 22 


94 


12 


118 1 


141 18 


100 


41 


18 


46 


8 


50 


25 


55 


15 


83 9 


111 


3 


138 24 


11.6 18 


200 


83 


9 


92 


Ifi 


101 


23 


111 


3 


166 18 


222 


6 


277 21 


333 9 


500 


208 


9 


•231 


13 


234 


17 


277 


21 


416 18 


555 


15 


fi94 12 


833 9 


1000 


416 


18 


462 


26 


.-|()9 


7 


555 


15 


833 9 


nil 


3 


1388 24 


1666 18 













Depth 


5 feet 6 inches. 












60 

a 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


9 




10 


11 


1 foot. 


1 foot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


^ 


inches. 


inches. 


inches. 






G inches. 






6 inches. 




Yards. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Vds. ft. 


K 




6 




7 


8 




8 


12 




16 




21 


25 


1 




12 




14 


15 




16 


25 


1 


(i 


1 


U 


1 22 


2 




2o 


1 




1 3 


1 


6 


1 22 


2 


12 


3 


1 


3 18 


3 


1 


10 


1 


14 


1 18 


1 


22 


2 20 


3 


18 


4 


16 


5 13 


4 


1 


22 


2 


1 


2 6 


2 


12 


3 18 


4 


24 


6 


3 


7 9 


5 


2 


8 


2 


15 


2 22 


3 


1 


4 16 


6 


3 


7 


17 


9 4 


6 


2 


20 


3 


1 


3 10 


3 


18 


5 13 


7 


9 


ii 


4 


11 


7 


3 


6 


3 


15 


3 25 


4 


7 


6 11 


8 


15 


10 


19 


12 22 


8 


3 


18 


4 


2 


4 13 


4 


24 


7 9 


9 


21 


12 


G 


14 18 


9 


4 


3 


4 


16 


5 1 


5 


13 


8 7 


11 




13 


20 


16 13 


10 


4 


16 


5 


2 


5 16 


6 


3 


9 4 


12 


6 


15 


7 


18 9 


11 


5 


1 


5 


16 


6 4 


6 


19 


10 2 


13 


12 


16 


22 


20 4 


12 


5 


13 


6 


3 


6 19 


7 


9 


11 


14 


18 


18 


9 


22 


13 


5 


26 


6 


17 


7 8 


7 


25 


11 25 


15 


24 


19 


23 


23 22 


14 


6 


11 


7 


3 


7 23 


8 


15 


12 22 


17 


3 


21 


10 


25 18 


15 


6 


24 


7 


17 


8 11 


9 


4 


13 20 


18 


9 


22 


25 


27 13 


25 


11 


12 


12 


20 


14 


15 


7 


22 25 


30 


15 


38 


5 


45 22 


40 


18 


9 


20 


10 


22 11 


24 


12 


36 18 


48 


24 


61 


3 


73 9 


55 


25 


6 


28 




30 22 


33 


16 


50 11 


C7 


6 


84 


1 


loo 22 


70 


32 


2 


35 


17 


39 6 


42 


21 


64 4 


85 


15 


106 


25 


12.S 


85 


38 


26 


43 


8 


47 17 


51 


25 


77 25 


103 


24 


129 


23 


i.y, 22 


100 


45 


22 


50 


25 


56 


61 


3 


91 18 


122 


6 


1.S2 


21 


183 9 


200 


91 


18 


101 


23 


112 1 


122 


6 


183 9 


244 


12 


^05 


15 


3G6 18 


500 


229 


4 


254 


17 


280 2 


305 


15 


458 9 


611 


3 


763 


24 


91G 18 


1000 


458 


9 


509 


7 


5(;0 5 


CU 


3 


916 18 


1222 


6 


1527 


21 


1833 9 



404 



LAND DRAINAGE. 



CUBIC YARDS OF DIGGING IN DRAINS. 
Depth 6 feet. 



a' 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


s' 


n 




10 


11 


1 foot. 


1 foot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


ij 


inches. 


inches. 


inches. 






inches. 






6 inches. 




Yards. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


Yds. ft. 


y-i 




7 


7 


8 




9 


13 




18 


22 


1 


1 




13 


15 


ir, 




18 


1 


1 


9 


1 18 


2 


. 2 


1 




1 3 


1 G 


1 


9 


2 


2 


18 


3 9 


4 


3 


1 


13 


1 18 


1 22 


2 




3 


4 




5 


G 


4 


2 




2 (i 


2 12 


2 


18 


4 


5 


9 


6 18 


8 


5 


2 


13 


2 21 


3 1 


3 


9 


.') 


(; 


18 


8 9 


10 


() 


3 




3 ft 


3 IS 


4 




G 


8 




10 


12 


7 


3 


13 


3 24 


4 7 


4 


18 


7 


9 


9 


11 18 


14 


8 


4 




4 12 


4 24 


5 


9 


8 


10 


18 


13 9 


16 


9 


4 


13 


5 


5 13 


G 




9 


12 




15 


18 


10 


5 




5 15 


6 .3 


G 


18 


10 


13 


9 


16 18 


20 


11 


6 


13 


fi 3 


G 19 


7 


9 


11 


14 


IS 


18 9 


22 


12 


6 




6 18 


7 9 


8 




12 


IG 




20 


24 


13 





13 


7 fl 


7 25 


8 


18 


13 


17 


9 


21 18 


26 


14 


7 




7 21 


8 15 


9 


9 


14 


18 


18 


23 


28 


15 


7 


13 


8 !) 


9 4 


10 




15 


20 




25 


30 


25 


12 


13 


13 24 


15 7 


IG 


18 


25 


33 


9 


41 18 


50 


40 


20 




22 G 


24 12 


2U 


18 


40 


53 


9 


06 18 


80 


55 


27 


13 


30 15 


33 IG 


3G 


18 


55 


73 


9 


91 18 


110 


70 


35 




38 24 


42 21 


4G 


18 


70 


93 


9 


116 IS 


140 


85 


42 


13 


47 6 


51 25 


50 


18 


85 


113 


9 


141 18 


170 


100 


50 




55 15 


01 3 


(.6 


18 


100 


133 


9 


106 18 


200 


200 


100 




111 3 


122 C 


133 


9 


200 


2G6 


18 


333 9 


400 


500 


250 




277 21 


305 15 


333 


9 


500 


066 


18 


833 9 


1000 


1000 


500 




555 15 


611 3 


606 


18 


1000 


1333 


9 


1G6G 18 


2000 



.a 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Wi( 


1th 


Width 


Width 


a 


9 




10 


11 


1 foot. 


1 foot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


iJ 


inches. 


inches. 


inches. 






inches. 






6 inches. 




Yards. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


M 




i 




8 




9 




10 




15 




19 




24 


1 2 


1 




15 




10 




18 




19 


1 


2 


1 


12 


1 


22 


2 4 


2 


1 


2 


1 


5 


1 


9 


1 


12 


2 


4 


2 


24 


3 


16 


4 9 


3 


1 


17 


1 


22 


2 




2 


4 


3 


7 


4 


9 


5 


11 


6 13 


4 


2 


4 


2 


11 


2 


17 


2 


24 


4 





5 


21 


7 


6 


8 18 


f, 


2 


19 


3 




3 


8 


3 


\(, 


5 


11 


7 


6 


9 


1 


10 22 


G 


3 


7 


3 


10 


3 


20 


4 


9 





13 


8 


18 


10 


22 


13 


7 


3 


21 


4 





4 


17 


5 


1 


7 


10 


10 


3 


12 


17 


15 4 


8 


4 


9 


4 


22 


5 


18 


.^i 


21 


8 


IS 


11 


15 


14 


12 


17 9 


9 


4 


24 


5 


11 


5 


20 





13 


9 


20 


13 




16 


7 


19 \:\ 


10 


5 


11 










ii 


7 





10 


22 


14 


12 


18 


1 


21 IS 


11 


5 


an 


6 


17 


7 


8 


7 


25 


11 


25 


15 


24 


19 


23 


23 22 


12 


G 


13 


7 


6 


7 


25 


8 


18 


13 




17 


9 


21 


18 


20 


13 


7 


1 


7 


22 


8 


10 


9 


10 


14 


2 


18 


21 


23 


13 


28 4 


14 


7 


16 


8 


11 


9 


7 


10 


3 


15 


4 


20 


H 


25 


7 


30 9 


15 


8 


3 


9 


1 


9 


25 


10 


22 


\\S 


7 


21 


18 


27 


2 


32 13 


25 


13 


15 


15 


1 


16 


15 


18 


1 


27 


2 


36 


3 


45 


4 


54 4 


40 


21 


18 


24 


2 


26 


13 


28 


24 


43 


9 


57 


21 


72 





80 18 


55 


29 


21 


33 


3 


36 


11 


39 


19 


59 


10 


79 


12 


99 


8 


119 4 


70 


37 


25 


42 


3 


46 


9 


50 


15 


75 


22 


101 


3 


120 


10 


151 18 


85 


40 


1 


51 


4 


5G 


7 


01 


10 


92 


2 


122 


21 


153 


13 


184 4 


100 


54 


4 


60 


5 


GO 


5 


72 


6 


108 


9 


144 


12 


180 


15 


210 18 


200 


108 


9 


120 


10 


132 


11 


144 


12 


210 


18 


288 


24 


301 


3 


433 9 


500 


270 


22 


300 


25 


331 




301 


3 


541 


18 


722 


6 


902 


21 


1083 9 


1000 


541 


18 


001 


23 


602 


1 


722 


G 


1083 


9 11444 


12 


1805 


15 


2100 18 



DIGGING UNDERDRAINS. 



405 



CUBIC YARDS OF DIGGING IN DRAINS. 
Depth 7 feet. 



to 

a 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


Width 


9 




11 




11 




1 foot. 


1 foot 


2 feet. 


2 feet 


3 feet. 


^ 


inches. 


inches. 


inches. 






inches. 






6 inches. 




YardH. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. 


ft. 


Yds. ft. 


^ 




8 




9 




10 




10 




16 




21 




26 


1 4 




IG 




17 




19 




21 


1 


4 


1 


15 


1 


25 


2 9 


2 


1 


4 


1 


8 


1 


11 


1 


15 


2 


9 


3 


3 


3 


24 


4 IS 


3 


1 


20 


1 


25 


2 


4 


2 


9 


3 


13 


4 


18 


5 


22 


7 


4 


2 


9 


2 


16 


2 


23 


3 


3 


4 


18 


6 


6 


7 


21 


9 9 


5 


2 


25 


3 


6 


3 


15 


3 


24 


5 


22 


7 


21 


9 


19 


11 18 


e 


3 


13 


3 


24 


4 


7 


4 


18 


7 




9 


9 


U 


18 


14 


7 


4 


2 


4 


14 


5 




6 


12 


8 


4 


10 


24 


13 


16 


16 9 


8 


4 


18 


5 


6 


5 


19 


6 


6 


9 


9 


12 


12 


15 


15 


18 18 


9 


5 


7 


5 


22 


6 


11 


7 




10 


13 


14 




17 


13 


21 


10 


5 


22 


6 


13 


7 


3 


7 


21 


11 


18 


15 


15 


19 


12 


23 9 


11 


6 


11 


7 


3 


7 


23 


8 


15 


12 


22 


17 


3 


21 


10 


25 18 


12 


7 




7 


21 


8 


15 


9 


9 


14 




18 


18 


23 


9 


28 


13 


7 


16 


8 


11 


9 


7 


10 


3 


15 


4 


20 


6 


25 


7 


30 9 


14 


8 


4 


9 


2 


9 


26 


10 


24 


16 


9 


21 


21 


27 


6 


32 18 


15 


8 


20 


9 


19 


10 


19 


11 


18 


17 


13 


23 


9 


29 


4 


35 


25 


14 


lb 


16 


5 


17 


22 


19 


12 


29 


4 


38 


24 


48 


16 


58 9 


40 


23 


9 


25 


25 


28 


14 


31 


3 


46 


18 


62 


6 


77 


21 


93 9 


55 


32 


2 


35 


17 


39 


6 


42 


21 


64 


4 


85 


15 


106 


25 


128 9 


70 


40 


22 


45 


10 


49 


24 


54 


12 


81 


18 


108 


24 


136 


3 


163 9 


85 


49 


16 


55 


2 


60 


16 


66 


3 


99 


4 


132 


6 


165 


7 


198 9 


100 


58 


9 


64 


22 


71 


8 


77 


21 


116 


18 


155 


15 


194 


12 


233 9 


200 


110 


18 


129 


17 


142 


16 


155 


15 


233 


9 


311 


3 


388 


24 


406 18 


500 


291 


18 


324 


2 


356 


13 


388 


24 


583 


9 


777 


21 


972 


6 


1166 18 


1000 


583 


9 


648 


4 


712 


20 


777 


21 


1166 


18 


1155 


15 


1944 


12 


2333 9 



For example, it is required to know how many cubic 
yards of earth are to be removed in making 100 yards of 
drain, 3 feet deep ; the top width being 18 inches and the 
bottom 4 inches. 

18 
4 

2)22 

1 1 inches, mean width. 

Find, under the head of 3 feet deep, in the column length, 
the number of yards; then under the column of 11 inches 
wide, opposite the number of yards, will be found the 
number of cubic yards in the proposed drain. 

Many machines have 'been invented for the purpose of 
digging ditches, thus not only making them in a much 
shorter period of time, but much cheaper. We believe 
ditching, or drain plows (not mole plows) hayp bepn ex- 



406 LAND DRAINAGE. 

hibited at every fair held by the Ohio State Board of 
Agriculture since 1856 ; but we do not remember of having 
seen a single one, among the entire lot, which we could 
recommend to the farmers as being an implement with 
which they would not be disappointed. 

Messrs, Pratt, of Canandaigua, N. Y., have invented a 
ditching machine, which is highly recommended by the 
^^ Rural New Yorker;" but parties who have witnessed 
its operation are not so favorably impressed with it, Mr. 
B. B, Briggs, of Sharon, Medina county, Ohio, in 1859, 
invented a machine, which looks not very unlike a mole 
plow, to lay tile without digging a ditch. The following 
is Mr. Briggs' own account of the working capability of 
the machine. While we have no disposition to deny that 
this machine will do precisely what Mr. Briggs claims for 
it, we must, at the same time, be permitted to state that 
we would not recommend any one to undertake to under- 
drain any considerable quantity of land in this manner ; 
because it is a matter of impossibility to have the tile as 
firmly and as correctly laid as if done by hand, 

"My mode of taking round tile (which are considered the best 
by those most experienced) is this : — Make an excavation at the 
heel of the mole, with a gentle inclination backward; then fasten 
the first section of rope to the heel of the mole ; then string said 
section with tile to within about four feet of the mole, and secure it 
by means of a set of clutches, and the hook of the succeeding sec- 
tion ; each section to be about twenty-five feet long, though I have 
taken in upward of fifty feet to each set of clutches. The machine 
can then be moving forward, as the next section is being strung and 
secured as before, and so continue to do, until so much is taken in 
as the strength of the rope will justify, say four hundred or more 
feet. Next, dig down again at the heel of the mole (making the 
excavation as before), and detach the rope; then draw it out by hand 
from the place of entrance, and again proceed as before. The spaces 
loft at the excavation can be filled in by hand, and the joints pf tile 



DIGGING UNDERDRAINS. 



407 



set close together, by prying from either end, as one can move four 
hundred or more feet with an iron bar. 
" This machine can be used in all J> 
places where the mole plow can, and ^^ 
for Laying almost any kind of tile; ^^ 
for the arch and sole, or horseshoe, 
the clutches are made fast to one con- Mi« 
tinuous rope, at such intervals as %/^ 
may be thought necessary. The main, 
or one into which the smaller ditches 
empty, should of course be larger, 
and put in by hand, as they could 
not be joined by the machine. ' 

Mr. Paul, of Thorpe Abbots, 
near Scole, Norfolk, England, 
has lately invented an ingeni- 
ous machine for cutting drains, 
of which "we give an elevation, 
Fig. 82. It is drawn, as will 
be seen, by means of chain and 
capstan, worked by horses ; and 
at the same time that it moves 
forward, it acts as a slotting 
machine on the land, the tools 
on the circumference of the 
acting wheel taking successive 
bites of the soil, each lifting a 
portion from the full depth to 
which it is desired that the 
trench should be cut, and lay- 
ing the earth, thus removed, 
on the surface, at either side. 
There is a lifting apparatus at 
the end of the machine, by which the cutting wheel may 
be raised or lowered, according to the unevenness of the 
surface, in order to insure a perfectly uniform " fall " in 




Fig. 82. 



408 LAND DRAINAGE. 

the bottom of the drain. The whole process is carried 
on at the rate of about four feet per minute ; and it re- 
sults, on suitable soils, in cutting a drain from three to 
five feet deep, leaving it in a finished state, with a level 
bottom for the tiles to rest upon. It seems to present 
the right idea of a draining plow, and whether success- 
fully developed in the present instance or not, we think 
it probable that a machine constructed on these princi- 
ples, will yet be found cheaply effectual for the purpose 
which now involves such an enormous cost of manual 
labor. Mr. J. J. Thomas, one of the editors of the Coun- 
try Gentleman, says : 

" The writer has made many experiments with various ditching 
machines, with a hope of greatly reducing this heavy expense, and 
has at last attained the desired object in a considerable degree — so 
that ditches, costing at three feet in depth not less than 30 cents a 
rod in the hard clayey, tenacious soil operated on, have been cut for 
about 12 cents a rod; and it is believed that, with the practical 
knowledge now attained, 3-feet drains may be cut for 10 cents a rod, 
or at one third the cost when done wholly by hand. 

"The process is a very simple one. A subsoil plow of peculiar 
construction, is so made that the draught-beam and handles may be 
successively elevated, as the ditch becomes deeper; with this plow 
and a pair of horses, the hard earth in the bottom of the drain, which 
is only loosened by the pick, in the common process, is broken up, 
and all the hand labor required is throwing out this loose earth. 
This labor is performed with the common long-handled, pointed 
shovels, and when the ditch has been cut to about one half of its 
intended depth, a similar shovel, with the sides bent up at a black- 
smith's, to fit the narrow channel, is then made use of. A very hard 
or stony hard-pan requires considerable dressing off with the pick, 
to prepare the bottom for laying the tile ; but where the soil is more 
favorable, such dressing is scarcely necessary. One two-horse team 
Avill commonly plow fast enough to keep from six to twelve men 
constantly shoveling, varying with the hardness of the soil. 

"In an experiment performed the present autumn in cutting drains 
a mile and a fourth in aggregate length, a small portion was much 
intercepted with rocks and some quarry stone, with great numbers 



DIGGINa UNDERDRAINS. 40i' 

of smaller stones. Through these portions, the subsoil looseninjc 

plow could be used but imperfectly, and it was necessar}'- to occupy 
eight days' work in quarrying, etc., and ten days more in dressing 
off these stony and hard bottoms with pick and crowbar. 
" The following is the actual cost of 400 rods : — 

4 days with two-horse team, .... $ 8^00 

35 " shoveling, 87V cents, - - - ■ - - ' 30,75 

10 " dressing bottom, etc., - . - . 8,75 

8 " quarrying rocks, etc., 7,00 

- 5 " laying tile and covering it, - - - 4,37 

5500 tile, 95 cents, 52,25 

Drawing half mile, 2,00 

Plowing in ditches, 1,50 

$114,62 
or, 28J cents a rod completed. 

" Omitting the four last items, connected with the tile and laying 
it, the cost of merely cutting the drains is $54.50, or 13^ cents a rod; 
or, omitting the cost of quarrying the stone, and two thirds of dress- 
ing the bottom (this being confined to a very small portion), the ex- 
pense would be 10 1-5 cents a rod. 

" A part of the work was done during a severe drought, when the 
Bubsoil was very hard, and the loosening was consequently slower 
and more laborious. Earlier in the season, when the earth is softer, 
the loosening plow would do its work in less than half the time here 
required. This would be especially important where a fractious 
hard-pan exists. From one to six inches of earth are loosened at 
each passage of the plow. An " evener," or central whipple-tree, 
from five to seven feet long, is requii-ed, the horses walking on oppo- 
site sides of the ditch. 

" It is also very obvious that no complex machine can ever succeed 
as a ditcher, especially among stones, which constantly tend to jar 
and break it, but that the very simplest form of excavators must be 
adopted, which are easy to handle, light in striking stones, not liable 
to breakage, and easily and cheaply repaired." 
36 



CHAPTER XII. 



TIME TO CUT DRAINS, AND LAY TILE, 

No ONE should ever undertake to make drains in wet 
weather, or in severe frost. When the land is unoccupied, 
and the weather dry, draining may be carried on with suc- 
cess. It can be managed to the best advantage when the 
land is in stubble or pasture, and is afterward to be plowed 
for a crop. After the removal of a crop in the fall, is a very 
favorable time, but it must be finished before the fall rains 
set in, or before hard frosts come. In any case, it should 
be done in the spring before a crop is put in, or before 
the land is fallowed in the fall, or rather one of the oper- 
ations should follow it in a short time, that the superior 
condition into Avhich the soil may then be brought may be 
realized at the earliest possible moment. 

Tile lying may commence at either end of the drain. 
When the soil is sandy, and liable to fall in, it is usual to 
begin at the lower end, and fill in as the work progresses, 
taking care to have the last tile well stufi"ed with straw to 
prevent the mud from entering, while another piece is be- 
ing dug. Where there is little danger of the sides falling 
in, it is decidedly better to have the whole drain dug out 
before a single tile is laid, and to have the tile laying com- 
mence at the upper end of the drain. In this way the 
tiles are kept clear of mud, and there is an opportunity 
to correct any defect in the digging, or to equalize the 
fall more perfectly than could otherwise be done. Tiles 
are usually laid with the instrument heretofore described. 
(See Tile Layer, Fig. 74, page 391.) They are laid as 
closely together, and the joints made to fit as perfectly as 
''410) 



TIME TO CUT DRAINS, AND LAY TILE. 411 

possible. When the warping of the tiles in burning makes 
it impossible to lay them absolutely straight, all deviations 
must be lateral, so as not to interfere with the true level of 
the bottom of the drain. Straw is sometimes put thinly 
upon the tiles before the earth is thrown in ; and it is an ex- 
cellent practice. Sometimes brush is laid upon the straw, 
so as to fill up the drain in part; some benefit is derived 
from this in deep drains, in very tenacious clay. Others 
lay in the turf next to the tiles, the grassy side down- 
ward ; this is some trouble, but it answers an excellent 
purpose. Small stones are frequently laid upon the tiles ; 
this brings the pressure so unequally upon the surface of 
the tiles, as to result in their fracture. When drains are 
dug on stony land, they are necessarily made wider on 
the bottom to allow of the use of the pick and shovel ; it 
is then important to pack small stones by the side of the 
tiles, so as too keep them firmly in place. 

If the drains are wider at the bottom than is required 
for the tiles, care must be taken in returning the earth 
not to disarrange them, or admit loose earth into them. 
Some pack earth or clay between the tiles and the sides 
of the ditch, or place a part of the turf or top spading 
upon them. In filling the drains great care should be 
taken not to leave a body of earth, and especially clay on 
the surface. In grass land the turf may be laid in its 
original position, so that no portion of the land will be 
made unproductive for a single season. 

In some instances, it may be difficult to known how to 
dispose of the clay, when it can not be used in filling the 
drains. Mr. Donald ' says : " If the surface soil is not 
too stifi", the clay may be spread over it, and after being 
fully broken down by the influence of the atmosphere, 

' James McDonald (England) on Land Draining. 



412 LAND DRAINAGE. 

and separated by harrowing, it may be mixed with the 
old earth." 

The filling of drains is often done too carelessly, as 
though this were of no consequence. The earth tlirown 
directly upon the tiles, or upon their covering, ought to 
be put on with care, so as not to displace the tiles. It 
is also well to tread the earth a little as it is thrown in, 
otherwise it will be so loose as to admit the descent of 
the water too rapidly, carrying with it much sand into 
the drain. After the drain is full, the remainder should 
be carefully laid in a ridge on top, to sink down as that 
below settles. There is no great difficulty in rigging 
a plow so as to fill in most of the earth removed from 
drains. 

Minor Drains. — These should always be cut in the 
direction or up and*down the line of greatest descent, and 
should, when practicable, be cut parallel, or at most, hav- 
ing a slight angle only to the sub-main drain, E, J, Fig. 
53, page 377. When the minor drains are led into a col- 
lecting drain, as G, G, same Fig. and page just referred 
to, the drain, G, should not be dug at right angles with the 
outlet of the minors, nor should it be dug at right angles 
Avith the sub-main, but should make a slight angle with 
both, as represented in the cut, so as to cause the least 
possible impediment in the flow of water from one into 
the other. 

The point of intersection betAveen the minor and col- 
lecting drain should be made at a considerably greater 
angle than the general direction of the drains respectively, 
as represented at Fig. 83. The collecting 
drains should be several inches lower than 
the minor drains, and the last joint of 
Fig. 83. ^^^^ minor should be lowered at the con- 

nectino; end, so as to be on a level with the collectiniir 



TIME TO CUT DRAINS, AND LAY TILE. 413 

drain. With pipe tile the connections are best made at 
the joints, by breaking off a portion of the side of each 
piece of tile which is to receive the incoming drain. 
Where horseshoe tile are used the connection is made at 
the center of a piece of the re- 
ceiving tile, as shown in Fig. 84, 
Avhere a is the tile of receiving 
drain, and h the tile of the in- 
coming drain. When tile are laid 
by commencing at the upper 
end of the drain, the upper end 
of the first tile laid should rest 
nrmly with its entire end against 

a brickbat, or other close fitting surface, so as to prevent 
the ingress of sand or mud at a point where it is not likely 
to have a sufficient current of water to carry it off. It is 
always best to surround the points of junction between 
the drains by small stones, and these covered with straw, 
or turf, so as to prevent the introduction of sand, silt or 
mud. 




CHAPTER XIII. 



OBSTRUCTIONS IN DRAINS. 

The Central Society of Agriculture, at Paris, having 
investigated the causes of the obstructions in pipe drains, 
Mr. Barral said that there are three causes, viz : deposits 
of carbonate of lime, sediments of hydrate of peroxyd 
of iron, and intrusion of roots. 

It was remarked that, in general, those obstructions had 
a primordial cause in the defective laying of the drains : 
some of them lacked sufficient declivity ; others had pipes 
■with imperfect joints ; but the most frequent occurrence 
was the intervention of roots. However, a fall of 1-500 
is sufficient to carry away the roots, and these are found 
in balls at the exit of the main drain. 

Obstructions are easily detected by an extraordinary 
moisture which is manifested in the soil at the place where 
the pipe is obstructed. 

Mr. Herve Mangon, Drainage Engineer of the French 
government, says : 

" I have found obstructiona caused by sediments of carbonate of 
lime and oxyd of iron. I will present the result of my studies, on 
these two classes of deposits, and indicate the means by which I 
prevent them. 

" Calcareous Ohstructions. — Spring water sometimes contains car- 
bonate of lime in sufficient quantity to produce incrustations; that 
is, it deposits calcareous salt; the same phenomenon takes place 
within drain pipes, the section of which rapidly decreases, until it 
does not allow any passage for water, and soon the profitable, whole- 
some effect of drainage, which is established at great expense, is 
entirely lost. 

" Water, thus impregnated \nt\\ carbonate of lime, does not dis- 
(414) 



OBSTRUCTIONS IN DRAINS. 415 

solve it, unless it is acted upon by carbonic acid }i,as, which it also 
contains; water remains limpid as long as that gas is not disengaged. 
The calcareous deposit is produced only when the quantity of this 
gas is no longer in proportion Avith the calcareous salt present in 
water. 

" In order to prevent the formation of the calcareous obstructions 
in drain pipes, all that is required is, to prevent the separation of 
the carbonic acid gas from the Avater which flows through the pipes. 
This may be easily accomplished by protecting the water in the 
pipes from communication with external air. 

" The atmosphere which is confined within the subterranean ducts, 
soon becomes impregnated with a full proportion of carbonic acid 
gas, as compared with the volume that is dissolved in water; this 
latter gas does not then any more tend to disengage itself; water 
charged with its calcareous salt, preserves its limpidity ; and it may 
flow forever without impediment. 

" This theory is very readily put into practice. A pneumatic pipe, 
set upright a few yards above the exit, and others, if necessary, at 
the point of junction of the most important main pipe drains, will 
])e sufficient. These pneumatic pipes are made of two or three large 
pipes, well joined together, laid over a flat stone, and covered with 
another. Some mason work ought to be laid around and beneath 
the upright, and the horizontal pipes connecting with it; those _/?om'- 
ing in, must be placed a shade lower than those flowing out ; water 
will thus intei'cept the air, and the object is attained ; that is, car- 
bonic acid gas will be retained. 

" Ferrvginoiis Obstructions, are formed by sediments more or less 
impregnated with oxyd of iron, and may be of a red, dark brown, or 
pale yellow color. When precipitation takes place in quiet water, 
there appear on its surface rainbow-like cuticles, which are sunk at 
the bottom by the slightest motion of the liquid. That sediment 
soon obstructs the pipes and completely stops the drain. 

" Waters containing such deposits are met with, especially, in soils 
strongly impregnated with either oxyd or sulphuret of iron, in 
marshes, turf, and lands which are exposed to filtrations from woods 
situated on a higher level. The acids named crenic, and apocrenic 
also perform an important part in the formation of the above de- 
posits. The elements of the soil have, of course, a great influence 
in the case; most of the deposits contain large quantities of clay, 
sand, or detritus of vegetables; so that all the analyses presented 
widely different results." 



416 LAND DRAINAGE, 

Without follovang the authoi* in his minute chemical 
demonstrations, we proceed with a practical and very in- 
teresting experiment. He says : 

" Having collected a fresh deposit, with the very water in which 
it was formed, I put it on a filter and obtained a perfectly clear 
liquid ; which, being placed into flagons entirely full, and well 
corked, or within an atmosphere deprived of oxygen, remains trans- 
parent. Having exposed one flagon to the action of pure oxygen 
and another to the open air, both became dim after a short time, and 
allowed the ocher-like substance, which is the basis of the aforesaid 
obstructions, to settle or precipitate. 

" This substance, which is the same that settles in the drains, was 
easily separated from the liquid ; being exposed to the air, it be- 
came more and more reddish, until, after a few hours, no further 
change took place ; being then inclosed within an air-tight flagon, it 
soon resumed a dark brown and almost black color. After a few 
weeks, the same sediment being placed again on the filter, the result 
was the same, that is, a clear liquid that became dim by contact 
with air, and deposited the identical yellow substance. On the other 
hand, the matter left on the filter resumed the reddish tint which it 
possessed when placed in the flagon." 

The same operation may be repeated any number of 
times on the same sample, with the same result. 

It is then evident that this body presents the double 
quality of becoming insoluble by its oxydation, and of re- 
ducing itself, when left alone, so as to become partly 
soluble. 

The above may be summed up in the following two 
propositions : First, the water which causes ferruginous 
obstructions within drain pipes, preserves its limpidity, 
and gives no sediment when not in contact with the oxy- 
gen of the air ; second, the deposit recently formed may 
exercise a reducing action upon itself, which causes it to 
resume in a great part its soluble property. 

From these two facts, it is easy to conclude that pneu- 
matic upright pipes, as described above, will prevent the 



OBSTRUCTIONS IN DRAINS. 417 

formation of ferruginous obstructions by excluding the 
oxygen of the air, as well as calcareous sediments, by 
including carbonic acid gas. 

Brandt had observed that the water impregnated with 
ferruginous matter collected from the bottom of a meadow, 
kept in open bottles, began to thicken at the end of three 
days, and to deposit flakes after five days. The occur- 
rence in some experimental holes made in the meadow, 
produced similar result. As the drain water, even under 
the most unfavorable circumstances, does not admit of so 
long a stay in the pipes, Brandt, for the sake of further 
observation, made an experiment in which he employed 
three tubes of 120 feet in length, 3 feet in depth, and 6 
inches fall (on the whole length), to be laid in the meadow 
in question. 

The tube A was provided with a wooden discharge pipe 
two feet long, which was perforated in an oblique line, and 
placed so that the discharged water was compelled to fill 
the opening of the tube. 

The tube B had a free discharge pipe. 

The tube C had likewise a wooden discharge pipe, which 
for a length of 5 feet Avas stamped around with clay, in 
order to produce a damming of the Avater in the tube. 

The works were undertaken in December, 1852 ; eight 
days, however, after the three tubes had been laid, all the 
drain water was turbid, the openings assumed an orange 
color, and a short time after, when it rained, the tubes dis- 
charged — owing to the more violent intrusion of bottom 
water — a large amount of oxyd of iron. After a minute 
investigation, the cause of this occurrence was found in 
the fact that the single tubes were not placed in the ground 
in a mathematical straight line ; but that they, deviating 
from the latter more or less, had here and there some 
points of stoppage in which the water remained station- 



418 LAND DRAINAGE. 

ary, and the formation of oxyd of iron took place slowly 
but uninterruptedly. Stronger water currents in the tubes 
overcame these stopping points, and carried away the sed- 
imentary matter. 

The tubes A and B were obstructed in May, 1853 ; the 
third, C, was constantly kept clear by the frequent dam- 
ming of its own water, effectuated by closing the dis- 
charge pipe with a tenon. In order to see how high the 
water was dammed in the tubes, the tenon was perforated, 
and a small glass tube placed in the perforation. Two or 
three days were generally sufficient to press the water to 
the margin of the small pipe. After the removal of the 
tenon the water, filling the entire space of the pipe, 
flowed off with the deposed substances of iron, and it did 
so, finally, in general very pure ; which result justified 
the opinion that in this manner an arrangement had been 
found for protecting against obstructions from oxyd of 
iron. The draining of the meadows undertaken in the fall 
of 1853 and spring of 1854, was then executed by tubes or 
pipes 20 perches long, laid at the upper end 2h feet, on 
the lower 3 feet deep. The tubes were laid Avith great 
care, and clay slightly stamped around ; the discharge 
pipes were of wood, and led into a ditch, which latter 
could, by means of a dam, in two days be dammed up 1 
foot above the highest point of the drain pipes. By al- 
ternate damming and discharging, repeated every fort- 
night, the drain tubes had up to the middle of 1855, re- 
mained free from any obstruction. 

Tischendorff tries to remove the obstructions occurring 
in the drain pipes by pressing water into the tubes at the 
upper end of the obstructed pipes by means of a simple 
pump-work. {^Zeitsehr. f. d. Landw., 1855, 64.) 

There are no definite reports on the success of the fun- 



OBSTRUCTIONS IN DRAINS. 419 

nel pipes recommended for the prevention of intrusion 
of quicksand, (cf. JaJiresb., 1854, I, 69.) 

Dr. Motherby-Areusberg (East Prussia), reports that, 
in draining in quicksand he had left none of the means 
recommended untried, but found none always reliable, and 
that he noAv gives preference to the following plain method, 
the principle of which consists in as speedy a performance 
of the successive operations as possible, in order to pre- 
vent the movement of the quicksand. The contemplated 
ditch is first thrown out deep enough to allow only one 
more cut to the stratum of quicksand ; into the walls of 
the yet shallow ditch leveling pegs are driven sideways, 
and to them is fastened a cord, by which the depth can at 
any instant be correctly ascertained — this being the most 
important item in the rapid succession of operation. The 
workmen now begin one after the other, and so close to 
each other that the necessary free movement only is al- 
lowed to each. The second workman commences only 
after the first one has made his first cuts ; the rest pro- 
ceed in the same way, so that they stand in their work 
entirely by steps, and the last must constantly be prepared 
with his hook, ready to receive the tiles and place them 
accurately and quickly, so that they may be immediately 
covered by a workman stepping over the ditch, with one 
foot of earth. In order to be perfectly sure as to the 
work being everywhere done right, stoppages are made 
from time to time, which, if arrested, furnish the best 
proof whether the work has been perfectly made, or where 
the mistake is which as yet can easily be remedied. In 
order to make these stoppages, the drain ditch is closed 
from distance to distance by a small loam dam ; the pipe 
itself projecting from this dam is closed by a cork ; the 
water is then permitted to gather in order to observe 



420 LAND DRAINAGE. 

whether, after removing the cork, a complete discharge 
of water takes phice. 

As to the intrusion of roots, Mr. B. de Latour states 
that a pipe drain, four feet below the surface, being choked 
up, he ordered it to be repaired ; that a great number of 
tliread-like beet roots, ten to twelve feet long, had pene- 
trated and filled the largest pipes ; that in another field 
carrots had caused the same accident ; that potatoes had 
nut done it, and he feared nothing from the roots of fruit 
trees and vineyards. 

Mr. L. Giraud and Mr. Th. Galos, from the neighbor- 
hood of Bordeaux, state that pipe drains, in the vineyards 
of that district, are protected against the intrusion of 
roots, by surrounding the pipes with straw, after having 
covered the joints with short pipes or collars. 



CONCLUSION 



We have now discussed all the prominent principles in- 
volved in underdraining, and have given such practical 
directions for determining the construction of the drains, 
that, with a little experience, no one guided by them will 
be liable to commit serious errors. 

It may be objected that we have not advocated any 
special system of underdraining — that we have not adopted 
Elkington's, Smith's of Deanston, Josiah Parkes', Pusey's, 
WharnclifFe's, Keythorpe's, Barrall's, Wauer's, Shoener- 
mark's, Gropp's, Mollenkopf 's, or any other special sys- 
tem; or that we have not introduced whole page engrav- 
ings, exhibiting entire fields of underdrains, or introduced 
engravings representing Johnston's, Yeoman's, or some 
other farms as models. We have deemed it best to discuss 
simply the principles involved, and then let the reader 
apply the principles in practice as best suits his location 
and circumstances. We doubt very much whether twenty 
farms are drained precisely alike in any other respect than 
upon the general principles — the details necessarily differ 
in each according to soil, situation, finances, etc. We 
were induced to adopt this method when we learned the 
fact that, so far as crops are concerned, underdrains with 
the mole plows, where the nature of the soil would permit, 
produced the same effects that the system of frequent or 
thorough drains advocated by Gisborne and Parkes did. 
The advantage of tile drains over the mole plow consists 
in this, viz: tile drains can be made in all soUs; are made 

r42i) 



422 CONCLUSION. 

with greater regard to precision; are permanent; while 
the mole plow drains can be made in clay soil only; are, 
from their manner of construction, unavoidably subject to 
irregularities ; and what is more than all, are merely tem- 
porary expedients. But the physical conditions of the 
soil are rendered the same ; and the increased productive- 
ness is the same, whether made by the mole plow or laid 
with tile. 

With systems differing so greatly in their details as 
pipe tile and the mole plow, and yet producing the same 
results, and involving the same general principles, it ap- 
peared to us like unmitigated prejudice to be partial to 
the details of one system and exclude all others, especially 
when we are fully aware that innovations, changes, and 
differences of detail are introduced by almost every one 
who undertakes to drain any considerable amount. 

We would address ourselves particularly to the young 
men of the West, and suggest to them that it would not 
only be ivell, but honorable and profitable, for them to 
qualify themselves to take charge of drainage works on 
farms ; that is, to examine the grounds, determine the 
proper depth and position of df ains, and advise as to the 
best method of making them. Judging from the tenor of 
many letters addressed to the writer in his ofiicial capacity, 
making inquiries respecting " drainage engineers," he is 
convinced that in a few years those who qualify themselves 
for the position will have much better cause for congratu- 
lation than those who enter the ranks of professional life. 
Drainage will soon become a new field of industry, which 
will demand more engineers than the railways have done — 
more " surveyors '"" than the western wildernesses. It is 
a field in which thousands and tens of thousands will find 
employment, and will go on increasing until the greater 



CONCLUSION. 428 

portion of the whole North American continent 'will be 
unclerdrained. 

Let young men of the present and "rising generation" 
turn aside from the overcrowded ranks of professional 
life — from the fascinations of the mercantile avocation, or 
the dazzling speculations of commercial enterprises — and 
become promoters of the productiveness of the soil. 



APPENDIX. 



LAWS OF OHIO RELATING TO DRAINAGE. 

An Act to provide for locating, establishing and constructing ditches, drains 
and Avatercourses. 
[Passed and tooJc effect March 2i, 1859. 56 vol. Slat. 58. j 

Section I. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State oj 
Ohio, That the county commissioners of any county shall have 
power, at any regular session, whenever, in their opinion, the same 
is demanded by, or will be conducive to the public health, conveni- 
ence or welfare, to cause to be established, located and constructed, 
as hereinafter provided, any ditch, drain or watercourse, within such 
county. 

Sec. II. That before the county commissioners of any county 
shall take any steps toward locating or establishing any ditch, drain 
or watercourse, there shall be filed with the county auditor a petition 
from one or more persons owning lands adjacent to the line of such 
proposed ditch, drain or watercourse, setting forth the necessity of 
the same, with a description of its proposed starting point, route and 
terminus, and shall, at the same time, file a bond with good and 
sufl&cient sureties, to the acceptance of the county auditor, condi- 
tioned to pay all expenses incurred, in case the commissioners shall 
refuse to grant the prayer of the petition, and it shall be the duty 
of the county auditor immediately thereafter, to place a correct 
copy of said .petition in the hands of the county surveyor or a com- 
petent engineer, who shall thereupon, taking with him the necessary 
assistance, proceed to make an accurate survey of the route of such 
proposed ditch, drain or watercourse, and on the completion thei'eof, 
shall return a plat, or plat and profile of the same to said county 
auditor, and shall also set forth in his return a description of the 
proposed route, its availability and necessity, with a description of 
each separate tract of land through which the same is proposed to 
be located, how it will be affected thereby, and its situation and 
level as compared with that of adjoining lands, together with such 
other facts as he may deem material. It shall be the duty of the 
county auditor, immediately on said report being filed, to cause no- 
tice in writing to be given to the owner or one of the owners of each 
37 ' (425; 



426 APPENDIX. 

tract of land along the route of such proposed ditch, drain or waier- 
course, of the pendency and prayer of said petition, and of the time 
of the session of the county commissioners at which the same will 
be heard, which notice shall be served at least ten days prior to 
said session, and an affidavit of said service filed with the county 
auditor ; and in case any such owner is not a resident of the county, 
or should any party or parties in interest, die during the pendency 
of said proceeding, such death shall not work an abatement of such 
proceeding, but the commissioners, on being notified thereof, shall 
make such order as they may deem proper, for giving notice to the 
person or persons succeeding to the right of such deceased party or 
parties, and notice of the pendency and prayer of said petition, and 
the time of hearing the same shall be given to such owner or per- 
sons, by publication for two consecutive weeks in some newspaper 
published or of general circulation in said county. 

Sec. III. That any person or persons claiming compensation for 
lands appropriated for the purpose of constructing any ditch, drain 
or watercourse under the provisions of this act, shall make his, her 
or their application in writing therefor to the county commissioners, 
on or before the third day of the session, at which the petition has 
been set for hearing, and on failure to make such application, shall be 
deemed and held to have waived his, her or their right to such com- 
pensation. 

Sec. IV. That said county commissioners, at the session set for 
the hearing of said petition, shall, if they find the requirements of 
the second section of this act to have been complied with, proceed 
to hear and determine said petition ; and if they deem it necessary, 
shall view the premises, and if they find such ditch, drain or water- 
course to be necessary, and that the same is demanded by or will be 
conducive to the public health, convenience or welfare, and no ap- 
plication shall have been made for compensation as provided in the 
third section of this act, they shall proceed to locate and establish 
such ditch, drain or watercouse on the route specified in the plat 
and return of said county surveyor or engineer. But if any appli- 
cation or applications for compensation as aforesaid, shall have been 
made, further proceedings by the county commissioners shall be ad- 
journed till their next regular session ; and the county auditor shall 
forthwith certify to the probate judge of said county a copy or copies 
of said application or applications, together with a description or 
descriptions of the property sought to be taken and appropriated, as 
contained in the plat or report of the county surveyor or engineers ; 



APPENDIX. 427 

which shall be forthwith docketed by said probate judge, styling the 
applicant or applicants plaintiff or plaintiffs, and the county com- 
missioners defendants; and such proceeding shall thereupon be had 
to assess and determine the compensation of such claimant or claim- 
ants, as are authorized and required by the act entitled " an act to 
provide for compensation to the owners of private property appro- 
priated to the use of corporations," passed April 30, 1852, and the 
acts amendatory thereof and supplementary thereto, so far as the 
same may be applicable ; and the compensation so found and as- 
sessed in favor of said claimant or claimants shall be certified by 
the probate judge to the county auditor and paid out of the county 
treasury, from the general fund, or remain deposited therein for the 
use of such claimant or claimants ; and said county commissioners 
shall, at the next regular session after such compensation shall have 
been assessed and paid or deposited as aforesaid, proceed to locate 
and establish such ditch, drain or watercourse as herein before 
provided. 

Sec. V. That said county commissioners, whenever they shall 
have established any such ditch, drain or watercourse, shall divide 
the same into suitable sections, not less in number than the numbers 
of owners of land through which the same may be located, and shall 
also prescribe the time within which the work upon such sections 
shall be completed. 

Sec. VI. That the county auditor shall cause notice to be given of 
the time and place of letting, and of the kind and amount of work 
to be done upon said sections, and the time fixed by the commis- 
sioners for its completion, by publication for thirty days, in some 
newspaper printed, or of general circulation in said county, and 
shall let the work upon said sections respectively to the lowest bid- 
der therefor; and the person or persons taking such work at such 
letting, shall, on the completion thereof to the satisfaction of the 
county commissioners, be paid for such work out of he county treas- 
ury upon the order of the county auditor; provided, that if any 
person or persons to whom any portion of said work shall be 
let as aforesaid, shall fail to perform said work, the same shall be 
re-let by the county auditor, in the manner hereinbefore provided. 

Sec. VII. That the county auditor shall keep a full and complete 
record of all proceedings had in each case under this act. 

Sec. VIII. That the auditor and surveyor or engineers shall be 
allowed such fees for services under this act, as the county commis- 
sionera shall, in each case, deem reasonable and allow; and all other 



428 APPENDIX. 

fees and costs accruing under this act shall be the same as provided 
by law for like services in other cases, and all costs, expenses, costs 
of construction, fees and compensation for property appropriated, 
which shall accrue and be assessed and be determined under this 
act shall be paid out of the county treasury, out of the general fund, 
on the order of the county auditor, provided that no part of the same, 
except the compensation for property appropriated, shall be paid out 
of the county treasury till the sum shall have been levied and col- 
lected as provided in the next section of this act. 

Sec. IX. That the county commissioners shall make an equitable 
apportionment of the costs, expenses, cost of construction, fees and 
compensation for property appropriated, which shall accrue and be 
assessed and determined under this act, among the owners of the 
land benefited by the location and construction of such ditch, drain 
or watercourse, in proportion to the benefit to each of them through, 
along the line, or in the vicinity of whose lands the same may be 
located and constructed respectively; and the same may be levied 
upon the lands of the owners so benefited, in said proportions, and 
collected in the same manner that other taxes are levied and col- 
lected for county purposes. 

Sec. X. The act entitled "an act authorizing the trustees of 
townships to establish watercourses and locate ditches in certain 
cases," passed May 1, 1854, and the act amendatory thereto, passed 
April 14, 1857, and the original act, passed February 24, 1853, on 
the same subject, are hereby repealed: Provided, that no proceed- 
ings had or commenced under anj' law repealed by this act shall be 
affected by such repeal. 

Sec. XI. This act to take effect from and after its passage. 

An Act to authorize the making roads and drains in certain cases. 
[Passed February 8, 1847. 45 vol. Stat. 50.] 

Section I. Be it enacted hy the General Assembly of the State 
of Ohio, That any person, persons, or company, having the owner- 
ship or possession of low lands, lakes, swamps, quarries, mines, or 
mineral beds that, by means of adjacent lands belonging to other 
persons or public highway, can not be approached, worked, drained, 
or used in the ordinary manner, without crossing said lands and 
highways, may be authorized to establish roads, drains, ditches, rail- 
ways, or tunnels to said places, in the manner herein provided. 

Sec. II. The party desiring to make such improvements shall 
file a petition therefor with the commissioners of the county 



APPENDIX. 429 

where the premises are situated, setting forth, in detail, the proposed 
Avork, and the situation of the adjoining lands, accompanied by a 
bond, to the satisAiction of the county auditor, and made payable to 
him, conditioned to pay the expenses of the committee of view or 
review, as hereinafter provided. 

Sec. III. The commissioners of the county, on the filing of 
said petition and bond, and at their first meeting thereafter, shall 
appoint a committee of view, and fix their compensation per day, to 
be composed of not less than three, nor more than five judicious, dis- 
interested persons, to meet on the premises on a day named, within 
one month from the date of their appointment, and by examination 
and inspection, determine whether the proposed improvement is 
necessary to the ordinary working, occupation and beneficial use of 
said grounds, swamps, ponds, low lands, mines, or mineral beds; and 
if so, said committee shall proceed to lay out and establish the same, 
of a width not exceeding sixty feet, and in such a manner as to do 
as little injury as practicable, and shall, furthermore, fix and assess 
the amount of damages which any proprietor of adjacent lands will 
be likely to sustain, and report and return the same, with all their 
proceedings, to the county auditor, within ten days from the time 
when said appointment shall be completed; but before said commit- 
tee shall proceed to said examinations, they shall be satisfied that 
three weeks' notice, setting forth the time and place thereof, has 
been published in some newspaper in general circulation in the 
proper county, prior to the day fixed upon by the commissioners. 

Sec. IV. At the next meeting of the county commissioners, 
after the return of the committee is received, said commissioners 
shall proceed to consider the subject, and if they shall be of opinion, 
taking into view the public as well as private interests, that said im- 
provements would be advantageous and desirable, they shall fix the 
same in the manner described in the petition and report, and cause 
a copy of said description and record to be made out for the benefit 
of the party praying therefor, unless either party shall, ten days be- 
fore said meeting of the commissioners, file a petition for a commit- 
tee of review and reassessment. 

Sec. V. In case a petition for review is filed, as aforesaid, the 
party filing the same shall file a bond, as aforesaid, for the pay- 
ment of the expenses of said committee, and the same shall be ap- 
pointed and act, in all respects, in the manner pointed out for the 
committee of view, and on return and report of their proceedings 



430 APPENDIX. 

of review, the commissioners shall take the same action as in the 
case of the committee of view. 

Sec. VI. The party praying for said improvement, shall cause 
the final report of the commissioners to be recorded in the 
record of deeds, and shall pay or tender to each of the parties re- 
ported to be injured as aforesaid, the full amount of money assessed 
by said committee of view or review, before entering upon the prem- 
ises in order to complete said works; and if the same shall be re- 
ceived, it shall be in full of said damages, but if it shall not be re- 
ceived, it shall be deposited with the county treasurer, for the use 
of the party injured. 

Seo. VII. The party refusing said award and tender, shall not 
be debarred his action at law for damages, in the proper courts, 
but unless a larger amount is recovered than the tender aforesaid, or 
-otherwise, the plaintiff shall pay his own costs. 

Sec. VIII. Works constructed under the provisions of this act, 
shall be entitled to the benefit of all laws for the protection of 
railways and canals in this state. 

An Act to amend the act entitled " an act to authorize the making of roads 

and drains in certain cases," passed February 8, 1847. 

IPassed March 8, 1850. 48 vol. Stat. 48.] 

Section I. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State 
of Ohio, That every petition filed with the county commissioners, 
under the law to which this is an amendment, shall set forth the 
names of all persons interested (if known to the petitioner), as well 
those whom it is supposed will be benefited as those who will be in- 
jured by the proposed improvement, and the notice required by the 
third section of said act shall also set forth the names of all the per- 
sons interested, as fully as the same are stated in said petition. 

Sec. II. Whenever any committee appointed by the commis- 
sioners, either of view or review, shall determine that the pro- 
posed improvement is necessary, and shall lay out and establish the 
same, and shall find that damages will be sustained by any proprie- 
tor or occupant of any adjacent lands, and the amount which they 
will respectively sustain, said committee, either of view or review, 
shall then determine the proportion of said damages which shall be 
paid by each of the proprietors of the adjacent lands, having strict 
regard to the benefits which they will receive, and the award so made 
shall be held as conclusive upon each of the parties charged with 
such payment. 



APPENDIX. 431 

Sec. III. "When any petitioners shall have paid over or depos- 
ited the full amount of all the damages so assessed, and after the 
improvement is finished in conformity with the details of the work 
as set forth in the petition, and in the manner contemplated by the 
viewer or reviewers, such petitioner may bring suit in any court of 
competent jurisdiction, and recover from each party the amount 
with which he stands charged by said award : Provided he has, be- 
fore the commencement of such suit, made demand of such sum 
upon the party so charged by said award. 

Sec. IV. Whenever it may be necessary to repair such work, 
any one of the persons benefited by it may cause such repairs 
to be made, and may compel contributions from each person bene- 
fited, on the basis of the award, the just and fair price of such 
repairs. 



INDEX. 



PAGK. 

Absorbing qualities of soils, - ----- 53, 139, 187 

Absorption dependent on physical condition, - - - - 141 

Absorption of potash, ..------- 198 

Acid, azotic, ----------- 142 

Admission of water into pipes, -------- 364 

Advantage of few outlets, -------- 382 

Advantage of warm soil, ----.---- 129 

Age of drains, ---------- 367 

Agricultural Institute of Versailles, farm of, - - - - - 180 

Alder impedes drains, --------- 267 

Alimentation of plants, --------- 140 

Aluminum in tile clay, --------- 325 

American tile maker(DAiXEs'), - ------- 345 

Ammoniac, ---------- 141, 203 

Ammonia in drain water, --------- 210 

Ammoniaeal salts, --------- 142 

Analogy between the plant and the sponge, ----- 190 

Analysis of river and spring water, ------ 207 

Analysis of water from drains, -------- 168 

Ancients, drainage among the, ------- 4 

Appendix, -.-.-.----- 425 

Appropriation for drains by England, ------ 23 

Artesian wells illustrated, ---------59 

Ash impedes drains, --------- 267 

Attraction, water of, ---------- 292 

Auger holes in drains, --------- 3((( 

Axiom of Alderman Mechi, .....--- 121 

Azotic acid, ------- ^ - - - 142 

Bales' mole plow, _--------- 239 

Baeeall, Mons., on drain tile machines, 343 

" on burning tile, --------- 360 

" quoted, 1'9 

Basins, draining, - --. 371 

Basin-shaped fields, •^'^^ 

Baxtee, Mr., on shallow drains, -22 

Beating clay for tiles, 338 

Black swamp in Ohio, --------- 182 

38 ^4.33) 



434 INDEX. 

I'AGK. 

Bligh, Walter, - - - -5, 15 

Blue clays of Ohio, -----.--.. 330 

Boards for tops of stone drains, ---.-_. 258 

BoCHEN, Mr., quoted, --.--.... 231 

BoEDECKER, experiments of, ------- - 138 

Bog drains, ----------- 248 

Books V. practice, ---------- 329 

BoussiNGAULT, experiments of, -------- 143 

Brandt, Mr., observation on obstructions, ----- 417 

Brick drains, ----.-..--.2I 

" for drains, ---------- 262 

" of Ninevah and Babylon, - ------- 35^ 

Briggs' tile laying machine, -------- 406 

Bright, Mr., experiments in draining, .-..-- 155 

Brush drains, ---------- 222 

" in France, ---...-.. 224 

*' Mr. French, on, -------- 223 

*' Mr. Thomas, on, ..- 223 

Brustlein, F., experiments of, ------ - 141 

Buckeye tile machine, --------- 347 

Burke, Mr. J., statement of, ------- 154 

Burning changes the constitution of clay, - ----- 325 

Burning tile, ---- 355 

" Barrall, on, --_ 360 

Calcareous obstructions in drains, ------- 414 

Caliber of drain pipe tile, --------- 275 

Cambridge, Mass., evaporation at, ----- - 88 

Canals, -----..--.-- i04 

" contents of, - - - 109 

Capacity of pipe tile, --------- 276 

Capacity of soils for retaining moisture, ----- 49 

Capillary attraction, ----------63 

Carbonate of lime, --------- 197 

Carbonates necessary to absorption, ------- 141 

Care required in digging drains, ------- 395 

Care required in drying tile, ----...- 353 

Catch-waters, ---------- 375 

Causeways, underground, described by Palladius, - - - - 4 

" " among the Greeks, - - - - 6 

Cayuga county, N. Y., draining in, - - - - - - - 163 

Cecidomyia destructor, --------- 170 

" tritici, 170 

Cement for drains, ---- 248 

" tile of, 326 



INDEX. 435 

PAc; i:» 

Central Park, draining in, ------- - ,"7 

CuAFFEE, Mr., crop of, 147 

Charnock, Mr. Charles, experiments on soils, -- - - - 79 

" •'■ tables of, - - 80 

Chase, Gov., opinion of, -.--.... iy2 

Classification of soils, ------ -..t)7 

Clayey and impervious soils, drainage for, ----- 178 

Clay cutter, -----.--... 336 

Clay, amount of in clay soil, ---..-. 310 

" " in loamy soil, -------- 310 

" " in sandy soil, ------- 310 

Clay pipe used by the Romans, ------.5 

Clay pipes invented by Mr. Smith, ------ 23 

Clay soils, physical properties of, ------- 43 

Clay suitable for drain tile, -------- 329 

Clays, effect of drought on, -------- 291 

" not impervious, --------- 291 

" of Ohio, geological position of, ----- - 330 

Clayton's drain tile mackine, ------- 342 

Coal beds, effect of mining on land, ------- 150 

Cohesion of soils, ---------- 46 

Cohesive soils, properties of, - - - - - - - - 47 . 

Cole & Wall mole plow, -------- 238 

Collars, pipe, cost of, --------- 266 

" authorities differ on, ------- 270 

" for pipes, invented, -.-.---- 266 

" Mr. GiSBORNE on, -------- 270 

" Mr. Dentox on, --------- 271 

Columella on open trenches, ------- 4 

Color of soil important, ---------44 

" " varies vrith temperature. ------ 45 

Composition and qualities of soils, -------42 

Conclusion, ----------- 421 

Condition of moisture in the soil, -------94 

Condition of healthy soil, -------- 107 

Conditions of soils, ---------- 103 

Conduit for bog drains, - 250 

Congress, proposition of, --------- 182 

Constituents of clay soil, -------- 43 

Cooling tile, ----------- 359 

Cost of different depths of drains, ------ 298 

" draining with mole plow, ------- 161 

" stone drains in Ohio, ------- 259 

" tile drains in Ohio, -------- 260 

" tile, - - - 313 



:>(j INDEX. 



PARK. 

Country Gentleman quoted, - 119, 122, 121, 145, 150, 224, 253, 257 

Crops, draining improves, -------- ]53 

CuosBY, Mr., statement of, -------- 147 

Crushing clay, ---------- 336 

Crust of earth, structure of, -------- 67 

Cubic yards of digging in drains, ------- 3'J'J 

Cylindrical pipes, invented by John Read, ----- 24 

Daines' tile machine, --------- 346 

Dalton & HoTLE, experiments of, -..-.- 83 
Daniol on drainage, ----------2 

Deep culture, ----.-.--. 147 

Deepening the soil, advantages of, ------ - 125 

Deep drains. Alderman Mechi on, ------ 295 

Deep draining sometimes impracticable, ------ 307 

Definition, -------.--- 1 

Density of soils, ----------45 

Denton, J. Bailey, on discharge from drains, - . - - 79 

" " on collars for pipe tile, ----- 271 

" " on draining slopes, ------ 376 

" " quoted, 125 

Depth of drains depends on outfall, --..-. 284 

" " " soil, 284 

" " determines size of tile, ----- 273 

" " GiSBORNE on, -------- 285 

" " minimum, -------- 287 

" of frost, - 298 

" of roots, 125 

Description of first mole plow, -------- 232 

Dickinson, Major, introduced mole plow in New York, - - - 234 

" " quoted, 235 

Digging drains, cost of, - - - - - - - - - 315 

" " Mechi on, 397 

" underdrains, --------- 394 

Direction of drains, ---------- 373 

Disadvantages of many outlets, ------- 382 

Discharge of water from land, -------- 277 

" " influenced by season, ----- 91 

Distance between drains, --------- 301 

" " " determines size of tile, - - - - 272 

" " " John's calculation, - - - - - 311 

" " minor drains, ------- 301 

Disturbances from animals, ..---.-- 381 

Ditches, open, not required on drained land, . . . - 182 

Ditching machine, Pratt's, -------- 406 



INDEX. 487 

PAGE. 

Ditching niaclnno, Thomas on, -.-.... ^OS 

Diversity of opinion on direction of drains, ----- ;!73 

Donaldson, F. & W., statement of, - - - - - - - ]-i7 

Drainage among the ancients, ..----. 4 

" " Greeks, fi 

" " Romans, ------- 4 

" an improvement, ------- -i 

" a permanent improvement, ------ 217 

" carries down soluble substances, ------ 134 

" olayey and impervious soils, - - - - - - 178 

" deepens the soil, - - - - - - - -119 

" definition of, --------- 1 

" does not impoverish soil, - - - - - - - 187 

" effect of on streams and rivers, - - - - - 111 

" equalizes temperature, ------- 133 

" external signs of want of, - - - - - - 179 

" facilitates pulverization, ------- 171 

" flower-pot illustration of, ----- - 3 

" garden, - - - - - - - - - -173 

" grass lands, --------- 175 

" history of, ----------3 

" how it operates, -------- 60 

" improvement in, .---..--2 

" improves quality and quantity of crops, - - . 153 

" increases the cfi'ect of manures, ------ 165 

" in Belgium and Germany, ------ 25 

" in England, 15 

" in France, --------- 20 

" the United States, - - - 27 

" lengthens the seasons, - - - - - - - 112 

" low places, swamps, etc., ------- 177 

" makes farming easier, - - - - - - - 117 

" Mr. Daniol on, 2 



nursery. 



174 



object of, ---------- 39 

orchard, --------- 174 

practical, - -'- - - - - - - -21/ 

prevents " freezing out," " winter killing," etc., - - 90-144 

" " heaving out," -- SO 

" injury from drought, ----- 147 

" rot in potatoes, ------- 169 

" rust in wheat, ------- ]fi9 

" surface washing, ------- 172 

" winter killing, 90 

removes stagnant water, 72 



438 INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Drainage removes surplus water, ------- 98 

" rot in potatoes prevented by, ..-.-- 10!) 

" rust in wheat prevented by, ------ 109 

" sandy or porous soil, - - - - - - - -178 

" springy places, .-.----- 177 

" system of Jxo. Johnston, - - 27 

" theory of, --------- •^''' 

" tilled lands, - 174 

" vearms soil, --------- 89, UlS 

" will it pay? - - - - - - - - - 173 

Drained land, season of growth lengthened, ----- S9 

" " warmer than undrained, ------ 89 

" water, influence of soils on, ------ 91 

Draining, ancient mode insufficient, ------- 20 

basins, ---------- 371 

clay fur tiles, --------- 335 

does not supersede pulverization, - - - - - 108 

Elkixgton's system, - - - - - - - -17 

fund of England, -------- 23 

hill-sides, - - 373 

meadows, --------- 310 

result of, - - lUS 

slopes, ---------- 37.') 

springs, ---------- 370 

surface water, -------- 379 

" " Mechi on, ------ - 299 

system of, changed in ISIO, ------ 20 

tile and soles used in, ------- 20 

time gained by, -------- 89 

tools, 387 

want of, indicated by plants, ------ 179 

what lands need, - - • - - - - -177 

with plug, --------- 220 

with stone in Ohio, -------- 2.'jS 

Drain gauge, ---------- 391 

" pipe, - - - - - - - - - - -13 

" " invention of, ------- - K! 

" tiles invented by Mr. Smith, ------- 23 

" water, analysis of, -------- 208 

Drains are lower levels, --------- 37-1 

" bog, - - - - - - 249 

" brush, - - 222 

" depth of, - - - 287 

" discharge from, -.--.----80 

" do not rob the soil, -------- 107 



INDEX. 439 

PAGE. 

Drains early, too shallow, ---.....-21 

" in northwestern Ohio, ---..--. 225 

" " England, age of, 367 

" " France, •' 367 

" " Ohio, 38 

" " Scotland, 299 

" " Ireland, 260 

" materials for, --.--..-- 218 

" minimum depth of, --..---.. 287 

" of brick in 19th centurj', .-.-... 21 

" " poles, 224 

" " rails, 226 

" " wood, - 21, 218 

" sheep, 248 

" shallow, Baxtfcr on, ---..---22 

" size of tiles for, -----..-. 36 

" stone, 220 

" " cost of, - 251 

" " • depth of, 251 

" " how made, -.-..... 251 

" " materials for, - - 250 

" " Mr. Calkins, on, ------ - 253 

" " under fences, .-..-.-- 253 

" stopped up by roots, --...--- 267 
" straw for, ------ .---H 

" tile, 261 

" trees should not bo planted near, ------ 34 

Draught, amount of, obtained, ------- 241 

Drill husbandry, remarks on, -.--.-.- 108 

Drought, drainage prevents injury from, ..... 147 

" effects of on clays, --.----- 291 

Drying tile, - - - - 349 

Durability of tile, 367 

" '■' depends on what, ...... 3fi9 

Dynamometer, - - - - - - " - - - -241 

Enrthenware of aborigines, .-....-- 363 

Eft'ect of drainage on streams and rivers, ..... HI 

Etfect of drought on clays, 291 

Effect of manure, drainage increases, - 165 

Effect of manure on land, 215 

Effect of seasons on drains, ---.---- 380 

ElementB of clay, -----.---- 325 

Elkington, Joseph, notice of, ------ - 17 

'I " system of draining, ------ 17 



440 INDEX. 

PAOK. 

Elkint.ton', Joseph, sj-stem adapted to springs, . - . . 24 

" " treatise ou draining, ------ 2G2 

Elm impedes drains, --------- 207 

E.merson's plow, ---- 235 

England, drainage in, - - - - - - - - - 15 

Erroneous belief, ----------02 

Evaporation a slow process, -------- 7;{ 

" Cambridge, Mass., 88 

" at Ogdensburg, N. Y., - - - - - - 88 

" at Salem, Mass., --------88 

" at Whitehaven, Eng., ------ gs 

" from Baltimore reservoir, ------ 88 

" in Ohio, 88 

" leaves ground poorer, -------89 

" rate of, -------- - 73 

" removes gases, --------89 

" when it commences, ------- 88 

Excess of water, effect of, --------- 107 

Exit pipes, ----------- 382 

Expansion and contraction of soils, -------62 

Expenditures on land, --------- 297 

Experiments from Patent Office Report, 130 

" of JI. B. Spencer, 1C9 

" on clays, --------- 189 

" on evaporation and filtration, ----- 83 

" on soils, by Charles Charnock, ----- 79 

" on soils, by Dr. Hugo Schober, - - - - 84 

" on soils, by Schukbler, ------- 50 

" in Tharand, Saxony, ------ 113 

" with Bogenhausen lime, ------ 192 

" with chloride of potash, ------ 192 

" with common salt, ------- 192 

" with dried earths, ------- 200 

" with garden mold, - - - - - - -191 

" with liquid manure, ------- 192 

" with salts of natron, - - - - - - - 192 

" with soil from Hungary, ------ 191 

" with sulphate of natron, ------ 192 

" with sulphate of potash, ------ 191 

External signs of want of drainage, ------- 179 

Extremes of heat and cold, effect of, ----- - 90 

Eyelet holes in tiles, ---------- 203 

Ettelwein's formula, --------- 275 

Fall, determines size of tile, -------- 272 



INDEX. 441 

PAGK. 

Fall of drains ilopeiuls on materials, ------ 274 

Fall, tables of, ----- 281, Hi:'. 

Fallows on drained land, -------- ItiT 

Farm of Mr. Spalding, -- ]fi2 

Farmers, condition of, --------- 2'J() 

Ferruginous obstructions in drains, ------- 41j 

Filling drains, ---------- 412 

Filtration, table of ---------- 79 

Filtration fixes gases, --------- 89 

Fire proof clay, ----------- 329 

Flower pot, illustration of draining, ------ 3 

Flat stones for drains, --------- 25o 

Foreign bodies in tile clay, -------- 325 

Formation of springs, -- ------- 100 

Freezing out prevented by drains, ------ 90, 144 

French, on drainage, quoted, - - - - 88, 116, 259, 279, 376 

" " brush drains, -------- 223 

" " water of pressure, -------- 109 

Friction of water in drains, -------- 274 

" depends on porosity of soil, ------- 304 

Frost, depth of, - - - - - 298 

" influence of on drained soil, ------- 123 

Fuliginous clay, ---------- 328 

Fuel for burning tile, --------- 359 

Gallery of Nature quoted, -------- (O 

Galos, Mr. Th., quoted, 420 

Garden, drainage of, -------- " ^''^ 

Genessee Farmer quoted, --------- 147 

Gerardin quoted, ----- - - - - 43 

Germination, ----------- l^'i 

Gill, J. L., crop of corn, ^'^''^ 

GiRAUD on roots in drains, --------- 4-0 

GiscoRNE on horseshoe tiles, -------- ■'<>4 

" " collars for pipe tile, 270 

" " depth of drains, ----- - - 28o 

" " Wharncliffe's system, ------- 295 

Gold washing illustration of tile drains, 269 

Gorlitz, experiments at, -----■-"" •'" 

Gopher plow of Illinois, -------- 2.>d 

Graham, Sir James, statement of, - - ^^-^ 

Grass lands, drainage of, - - - - - " " 

Gravity, specific, ---------- 

" " motive power of, ------ 350 

Griswold, L., statement of, 25i 



442 INDEX. 

PAGE. 

(irinding clay for tile, --------- 3o0 

Greatest descent, line of, -------- - 37;-$ 

Ground water, why it rises, -------- 99 

'' undrained, growth retarded in, - - - - - - 89 

Ha-ha fences in England, .---..-- H8I 

Handling tile, ----------- :i49 

Hamoir, 6., letter from, -------- i:; 

Hanover, draining in, - - - - - - - - - 15S 

Havana, soils of, --------- - 1 9fi 

Heaving out prevented by drains, ------ 90,1-14 

Heat and cold, eifects of extreme, ------- 9U 

Healthy soil, condition of, - -------- 107 

Headers, ----------- 378 

Hexnebeeg and Stokman, - - - - - - - -138 

Hewitt, Mr., crop of, --------- 147 

Hessian fly, ravages of, lessened, -..-.-- 170 

History of drainage, --------- 2 

" " " among the ancients, ------ 4 

" " " Walter Bligh's work, ----- 5 

" " " among the Greeks, ------ 6 

" " " in France, ------- 8 

How drainage operates, ---------60 

" " lengthens the seasons, ------ 113 

" to make plug drains, --------- 227 

" water enters the tiles, ---••---- 364 

Home manufacture of tile, -------- 332 

Hollow log to mix clay in, -------- 334 

Howell, Hon. John, stone drains of, ------ 259 

Horseshoe tiles, ---------- 263 

Horse power in tile manufactures, ------- 341 

Hydrostatic laws, ---------- 303 

HuxTABLE and Thompsox, ---.-.. 134^ I88 

Imbibing power of soils, ---------51 

Impervious soils, drainage for, - - - - - - - 178 

Importance of tempering clay, -------- 339 

Influence of soil on quantity of drained water, _ - . . 91 

" " season on discharge of water, ----- 91 

Ingredients of manure retained by soil, ------ 188 

Injury from drought, drainage prevents, ------ 147 

Inspection of obstructions, -------- 382 

Intersections, tile for, --------- 412 

Interstitial canals, - - - - - - -- - 109 

Introduction, -----------1 

Irish drains, ----------- 266 



INDEX. 443 

PACi:. 
Jaegers BoiienkuiiJo quotod, --------45 

Jauf.ert de Passa quoted, -.-..-.- (i 

John, calculation of distances between drains, - - - - - 311 

" experiments of, --------- 275 

John, Waeoe and V. Mollexdorf — formula of, - - - - - 276 

Johnson, C. M., experiments on evaporation, . . - - 7:-i 

" Prof., quoted, - 128, 133, 1;>1 

Johnston, J., letter from, condensed, - - - - - - 120 

Johnson, John, borrows money for draining, ----- 29 

". " extract from, - - - - - - - 17, IS 

" " farm of, 28 

" " illustrations of, ------ - 32 

" " practice of, - - - - - - - -31 

" " system of drainage, ..-..- 27 

Joints of pipes, width of, --------- 365 

Kenfield, D., letter from, -------- 331 

Keythorpe system, ---------- 301 

" peculiarities of, -------- 302 

Kiln for burning tile, ..------- 355 

Kind of soil, influences discharge of water, ----- 91 

Kneading board, ---------- 337 

Landholders, rights of, --------- HO 

Land in England and Germany, condition of, - - - - - 297 

" " this country, condition of, _..--- 296 

Latoue, Mr. B. de, on obstruction from roots, ----- 420 

Laws of Ohio relating to drainage, ------- 425 

Laying out drains, ---------- 370 

Legal distinction, ---------- 109 

" question, ----------- 110 

Lemma trisulea, ---------- 140 

" " analysis of, 211 

Length of drains, ---------- 312 

LiEBiG, experiments of, --------- 13S 

" " on nutrition of plants, - - - - - 1-2 

" quoted, ----------- 215 

Lime, carbonate of, --------- I'.li 

•' phosphate of, ---------- 1'^'' 

Line of greatest descent, -------- 373 

Loamy soil, amount of clay in, - - - - - - - - 310 

Loan, England's, for drains, -------- 23 

Lois Weedon, sj'stem of agriculture, ------- 1/1 

Low places, swamps, etc., -------- 177 



444 INDEX. 

PA OK. 

Machine for cutting drains, -------- .Jli? 

Machine for making tiles, inventuil, ------ 24 

Madden, Dr., quoted, - - - 1"-1 

Magnesia, salts of, .-- 211(5 

Magnon, Mr. Herve, on obstructions in drains, . - - - 414 

Main drains, ----------- 381 

Manufacture of tile, --------- 38, 324 

JIanufacturer, experiments of a, ------- 203 

Manure, drainage increases effect of, - ------ 10,', 

Manure, how applied, 1'"'" 

" how it acts, iGC, 

" ingredients retained by the soil, ----- 188 

Mauiottk, observations on evaporation, ------ 74 

Mark Lane Express quoted, -------- ()7 

Marley clays, - - - - - - - - - - - 331 

Marquis and Emerson's mole plow, 235 

Marquis of Twceddale, farm of, - ------- 154 

Masonry for exits, ..--- ;j82 

Materials for drains, - --------- 218 

Mattice and Penfikld's drain tile machine, ----- 344 

MAXWEi-ii Brothers, statement of, - - - - - - -117 

McDonald, on surplus clay, - - - 411 

Meadows, draining, ---------- 310 

Mechanical examination of soils, - - - - - - - 105 

Mecui, Alderman, on deep drains, ------- 205 

*' " on digging drains, ------ :5<)7 

" " on draining surface water, ----- 209 

" " quoted, - - - - - - - - 121 

" " size of tile used by, ------ 278 

Method of burning tile, -_------ SoO 

Midge, ravages of lessened, - - - - - - - - 170 

Jlildew in wheat prevented by drainage, - - - - - 160 

jMiller, J., traction engine of, ------- - 247 

Mineral substances in drain water, ------ 214 

Minimum depth of drains, --...-.. 287 

" fall of drains, -------- 275 

IMinor drains, ----------- 377 

'• " cutting, 412 

Mixing pit for clay, ---------- 334 

Moisture, capacity of soils for retaining, ----- 49 

" of the soil, condition of, ------- 94 

Mole plows, ----- 219 

Mole plow, Bales', 239 

" " Cole & Walls', 238 

" " Drfenbaugh's, -------- 240 



INDEX. 445 

PAG p.. 

Mole plow in England, --------- 2'Al 

" " in Ohio, - 231 

" " invented by Mr. Scott, 232 

" '•' Marquis ife Emerson's, ------- 2;i5 

" " Mr. Newman on, -------- 2HI 

" " Mr. J. M. Trimble on, ----- - 159, 245 

" " Pioneer, - - - 2:'.2 

" " report of committee on, - - - - - - - '2A'2 

" " Rowland & Forbis', ------- 2;i(i 

" " trial of, ----- 2-12 

" " WITHEROW'S, -------- 288 

Mortar, qualities of, ---------- 324 

Morton's Cyclopoedia of Agriculture quoted, - - - . ]ou, ]U1 

MoTHERBY, Areusberg, Dr., on obstructions, - - - - - 419 

Muck, - 213 

Naked fallows on drained land, - - - - - - -167 

Need of drainage, plants indicating, - - - - - - 179 

Newman, Mr., on mole plow, -------- 231 

<' " plug draining, 226 

North-east Farmer quoted, -------- 260 

Nourse, B. F., statement of, ------- IKJ 

Number of tile in kiln, .-- 356 

Nursery, drainage for the, -------- 174 

Object of drainage, ----------39 

Observations in Tharand, Saxony, 113 

Obstructions, inspection of, -------- 282 

" in drains, --------- 414 

Ohio Farmer, article from, --------- 159 

Open trenches among the Romans, ------ 4 

Operation of drains, illustrated, ------- GO 

Orchard, drainage for, --------- 172 

Outlet large, ------ 385 

" small, 3S1 

Oval tile, -t59 

Oxygen necessary for plants, ------- 63 

Palladius, quoted, ----------4 

Parkes, Mr., on collars for pipe tile, ------ 2i0 

" " rain tables of, -------- 78 

Pastes, long, ---------- 326 

" short, - 226 

Patent office report quoted, -------- 130 

Paul's machine for cutting drains, - - •i'^'' 



446 INDEX. 

PAOK. 

Peat tiles, ----..--..- 250 

Peculiarities of the Keythorpc system, ----.. 302 

Peep-holes, ----------- 383 

Permanent investment, --------. 3(^7 

Phosphate of lime, --------- 140 

Physical properties of soils, ------ --42 

Pick and pick-axes, --------- 3(10 

Pipes, cylindrical, invented by Read, ------ 24 

" for drains, first used, -------- 264 

" pressing, --.--.---. 34g 

Pipe layer, .--- 3<J0 

Pipe tiles, 221 

Pipe tiles, advantages of, -------- 270 

" " represented, -----._-. 268 

Pit for mixing clay, --------- 2M 

Pittsburg, land in vicinity of, - - - - - - - - ]50 

Planting trees near drains, -------- 34 

Plants indicating want of drainage, - - - - - - -179 

Plastic clay, ---- 328 

Plasticity in clay, ---------- 326 

Plug, construction of, --------- 228 

Plug draining, - - - - 226-228 

" " tools for, - - 227 

Pole drains, 224 

Poplar, black Italian, impedes drains, ------ 267 

Pores, ------ 104 

Porosity of soils, ---------- 49 

Porous soils with clayey subsoils, ------- 178 

Potash, - - - 139, 197 

Power of soils to absorb moisture, ------- 187 

Practical drainage, --------- 217 

Pratt's ditching machine, -------- 406 

Precaution in burning tile, -------- 358 

Precipitations in Ohio, --------- 379 

Preparation of clay for tiles, ------- 332 

Pressed tile of cement, --------- 326 

Pressing pipes, ---------- 348 

Preventive of rust, ----------36 

Price of tile in Ohio, --------- 361 

Productiveness of wheat in Ohio, ------- 127 

Properties of soils, --------- 42 

Prussia, drainage in, ---------- 158 

Public lands in Ohio, --------- 182 

Pug mill, description of, --------- 339 

Pulverization facilitated by drainage, ------ 171 



INDEX. 447 

I'AOK. 

Pulverizing the soil, ---------- 108 

Purifying clay for tile, --------- ay;^ 

Qualities of crops, drainage improves, - - - - - -153 

Qualities of soils, ---------- 42 

" " absorbing, -------- 187 

" required in tile clay, ------- y27 

Quantity of crops, drainage increases, - . - - - - - 163 

Quantity of water required, -------- 103 

Racks for drying tile, -.-....-. 351 

Rails for drains, ---------- 226 

Rain, amount of in Ohio, ---------75 

" " " carried oif by drains, ------ 379 

" tables, -----....--77 

" what becomes of it, - - - - - - - - 74, 101 

Rapid cooling of tile to be prevented, ------ asy 

Rate of evaporation, --------- 73 

"Reading Farmer," quoted, -------- ]22 

Read, John, inventor of cylindrical pipes, - - - - . - 24 

Regents Park, draining of, -------- 265 

Relations of soils to the phosphates, -..-.- 206 

Relief pipes for sinks, --------- 334 

Remedy for cold lands, -- 129 

Removal of stagnant waters, --------72 

Repertory of Arts and Sciences quoted, - ... - 232 

Report of committee on mole plows, ------- 242 

Researches of J. T. Way, 135 

Result of draining, - 108 

Retentiveness of moisture, -------- 49 

Richardson, on rights of land holders, ---... no 
Rights of land holders, ----....' no 

Rimming tiles, ----------- 354 

Risler's investigations, -------- 9];; 

River and spring water, analysis of, - - - - - - - 207 

Rivers and streams, eflfect of drainage on, Ill 

Roller mill, description of, -------- 340 

Rollers for crushing clay, -------- 335 

Rolling tile, 354 

Romans, drainage among, -------- 4 

" used clay pipes, -----...-5 

Roots can not penetrate wet soil, -....-- 126 

Roots, depth of, 125 

" drains stopped by, ---..... 265 

" e.\posed by evaporation, - - ------90 



448 INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Hoots furnished with soluble substances, ... - - 13-1 
Rot in potatoes, - - - - - - - - - -lt)9 

Round stones for drains, ...----- 255 

Rowland and Forbis' mole plow, 236 

Rust in wheat prevented, ......-- 3i), 16'J 

Salisbury, J. H., on capillary attraction, '^•> 

Salt common, experiments with, -..---- I'J- 

Salts of magnesia, -.-------- 2(16 

Salt prevents rust, ...-..--- oh 

Sand for tempering clay, ^2( 

Sand in drains, 2()1 

Sandy or porous soils, - - - - - - - - -1/b 

" soil, amount of clay in, ...---- 310 

ScHOBKR, De Hugo, experiments of, ^-1 

ScHONERMARK, on discharge of water, ------ 277 

" table of distance between drains, - - - - - 312 

Schuebler's experiments on soils, -....- 60 

Scientific draining of 19th century, 20 

Scioto river bottoms, --------- HS 

Scoops, ------ 389 

Scott, Mr., inventor of mole plow, 232 

Season influenced by discharge of water, - 92 

" lengthened by drainage, - - - - - - - ^'2 

" of growth retarded in undrained land, ----- S'J 

Security against animals, ■''='' 

Selection of materials for tiles, --- 3^4 

Serres, Oliver De, quoted, --------7, 8 

Settling of soil, - - - 112 

Shade for drying tile, >^'^l 

Shanghae plow, 2-5 

" Maj. Dickinson, on, 23.) 

SnicDD and Edson on discharge from pipes, 279 

Shed for tile manufacture, -- •^■■'" 

SiiEPARD, Mr., crops, of, - -U' 

Sheep drains, .-- 2 IS 

Shoulder drains, history of, - 2i'J 

" " not durable, 230 

Shovels, - - - 387 

Side drains, ^d 

Sieve for draining tile clay, 335 

Signs of want of drainage, - - - - - - - " ^'^ 

Silicic acid in clay, - - - - - '^^^ 

Silicate of potash, ^^''* 

Sinks and silt basins, ^'° 



INDEX. 449 

PAGE. 

Sinks and stilt basins construction of, - - - - - - 383 

Size of tile, ----- 36, 272 

" depends on amount of fall, ------ 272 

" " " depth of drains, - - - - i 273 

" " " distance of drains,- ----- 272 

" " " quantity of water, ----- 276 

" for middle and western states, ------ 278 

Slops, draining of, --------- 37.') 

" " Mr. Dfaton, on, 370 

Small outlets, - - - 381 

Smeaton, experiments on discharge from pipes, ----- 280 

Smith, inventor of drairi tiles, ------- 23 

" of Deanston, ---------- 293 

" " system of parallel drains, - . - - 25 

Soda, 139 

Soil absorbs from atmosphere, ------- 53 

" and subsoil, ----------57 

" capacity of absorbing gases, - ------ 54 

" " retaining moisture, ------ 49 

" classification of, --------. - ^7 

" clay, - - - 44 

" cohesion of, ---------- 46 

" cohesive properties of, -------- '^'^ 

" color of, important, -------- 45 

" deepened by drainage, -------- 119 

" densit}' of, --------- - '^^' 

" drainage warms, - - - - - " " " -128 

" expansion and contraction of, ------ 52 

" from Havana, experiments on, ------- 19t) 

" " Hungary, " « 1^1 

" " Munich, « " 194 

" how drainage deepens, -------- J--^ 

" mechanical examination of, - - - - - - - 11)5 

" not impoverished by drainage, 1"' 

. „ _ JO 
" porosity of, -------' 

" power of absorbing and retaining w.armth, - - - - .it' 
" properties ot, - 

" Schueblkr'.s experiments on, 

" settling of, time required for, - - 112 

" temperature changes color of, - ^■' 

" three conditions of, - - - - - - " ' - ^ • 

Sole tiles, 2^^ 

Soluble ingredients of manure retained, 188 

" substances carried down by drains, 13-1 

Solution of minerals by plants, - -. 

39 



J 80 
100 



450 INDEX. 

PACK. 

Sources of water, ---------- 374 

Spaulding, Mr. Xathaniel, farm of, ------ - 162 

Spades, ----- 388 

Span level, ----------- 39:5 

Specific gravity, ---------- 303 

" " the motive power, ------- 305 

Spencer, H. B., experiments of, ------ - 169 

Spontaneous growth on undrained land, - - - - - 

Springs, formation of, --------- 

Spring water, analysis of, r - - 207 

Springy places, ---------- 177 

Stagnant water removed by drainage, 72 

Standifoed, Mr., crop of, ------- - 147 

Stark county, geology of, - - - 102 

Statement of B. F. NouKSE, 116 

" " F. &. W. Donaldson, - 147 

" " J. Bdrke, 154 

" " Maxwell Brothers, - - - - - - -117 

" " Mr. Crosby, 147 

" " Mr. Standifoed, - - - - - - - -147 

" " Mr. Yeomans, 117 

" " Sir James Graham, 153 

Stevens and LeClerc, on discharge of water, . - - - 277 

Stocken, on discharge of water from drains, ----- 277 

Stokmann and Henseburg, -------- 138 

Stone drains, ---------- 220, 250 

" " cost of, 251 

" " depth of, 251 

" " how made, -------- 251 

" " in Ohio, 258 

" " materials for, -------- 250 

" " Mr. Calkins on, 253 

" " Hon. John Howell, on, ------ 257 

" " require more fall than tile, ------ 274 

'•' " under fences, -------- 253 

•' " what kind of stone employed, ----- 251 

Stone, how placed in drains, ------- 251 

" pipes of, ----------- 252 

Story, Judge, on rights of landholders, - - - - - 110 

Straw for drains, 11,25,411 

Streams of water, effect of drainage on, - - - - - - 111 

Subjects to be discussed, ---------41 

Subsoil draining, ---------- 226 

" Schdeblee's experiments on, ------ 55 

" warmed by drainage, -------- 89 



INDEX. 451 

PAGE. 

Sub-mains, ------ .-..- 37? 

Sulphate of natron, experiments with, ------ 192 

Surface washing, drainage prevents, - - ----- 172 

" water, draining, -------- 379 

" " Mechi on, 299 

<' " sinks equally, .--_--- 308 

Sutton Park, mole plow used in, ------ - 233 

Swamp lands in Ohio, --------- 182 

Swamps, low places, etc., --------- 177 

Table, Mr. Charnock's, of evapor.ation and filtration, . - - 80 
" of average discharge from drains, - - - - - 86, 87 

" of cubic yards of digging in drains, 399 

" of DaLTON & HOYLE, -------- 83 

" of evaporation in the United States, ----- 68 

" of experiments in Tharand, Saxony, ----- 11-4 

" of influence of temperature on discharges, - - - - 11(5 

" of number of tiles in drains, - - - - - - 315 

" of rain in Ohio, - - - - - - - " -(( 

" Schobee's, on rain and discharge, - - - - - Sb 

Talpa, or Chronicles of a Clay Farm, ------ 1^)3 

Tanks, sinks and silt basins, ------- 3i8 

Temperature changes colors of soils, ------ 45 

" of germination, ------- 129 

" of soils, 285 

" " increased by drainage, - - - - 128 

" " lowered by water, ------ 107 

" of water of drainage, 28(> 

Tempering clay, .--- 327-339 

Thames water, ammonia in, - - - - - - " " -"" 

Theory of drainage, ---------- •'^ 

Thomas, Mr., on brush drains, - ----- 223 

" on draining machines, ^^° 

Thompson & Huxstable, discovery of, ----- 134 

" " observations of, ----- 188 

Tile, burning, " " ^^^ 

- cost of, 313,314 

" drains, 220,261 

" " in Ohio, cost of, 257 

" draining a permanent investment, ----- <jd7 

" first machines for making, ------- ^ 

412 
" for interstices, -------- 

332 
" home manufacture of, -------- 

" horseshoe, --------"" 

" kilns, 3^3 



452 INDEX. 

PAfiK. 

Tile laying machine, Bkiggs', --..--. 40fi 

" maker, American, -----..-- 345 

" machine, Buckeye, -.--...- 347 

" " Matticf, & Pknfikld, -...-- 344 

" manufacture of, --------- 324 

" where obtained in Ohio, -------- 362 

" works in America, .-..._-- 3S 

Tiles, 220 

" drying, ..._--.--- 34;t 

" Elkington on, ---------- 262 

" handling, 349 

" number of, in drains, - - - - - - - -315 

" peat, 250 

" racks for drying, --------- 351 

" rimming, ...-.----- 354 

" rolling, 354 

" should be dried in the shade, ------ 351 

" size of, - - -- - - - - - - -^t) 

" " dependent on depth of drains, - . - . 273 

" " " distance of drains, ... - 273 

fall, 272 

Tilled lands, drainage for, - - - - - - - -174 

Time is money, ---------- 2.'i9 

" required for settling of soil, 112 

<( u ^Q carry off water, ------- 3811 

" to cut drains, ---------- 410 

" to lay tiles, 41(1 

TisCHKNDORF on obstructions in drains, - - - - - -418 

Tools for plug draining, .-- 22i 

Traction engine of J. C. Miller, 2-17 

Trees indicators of soils, -------- 181 

" killed by ditching, - - 182 

" should not be planted near drains. ----- ;; i 

Trenches, open, among the Romans, -------4 

Trial holes, ------ 301 

" of mole plows, - - - - - " " " " -^l- 
Triangular stone drain, _-.----- 2.Tti 

Trtmble, J. M., quoted, ---- l.)!' 

" on mole plow, ------- 2-i^>^ 

Tucker, Luther, quoted, - - - - - ■ " " -!()•! 

TuLL, Jethro, system of agriculture, ------ 108 

Turf drains, ---------- 



219 



Underground causeways described by Palladius, - - - - 4 

(( " used by the Greeks, ----- C 



INDEX. 453 

r.vOE. 
Underiiiiiied land, ^, .....--- 150 

Undiiiined land colder than drained, ------ 89 

" " season of growth retarded in, - - - - 89 

" " spontaneous growth on, ------ ]80 

" " suffers from hot and dry weather, - - . gy 

(Tnitcd States, drainage in, ..---.--27 

Urine substances, filtration of, ... - - . - . 204 

Value of absorption, .--.---.. 135 

Verdkil & Rislek's investigations, ...--- 213 

Vincent, formula adopted by, .------. 275 

Von Mollexdorf & Waege, observations of, . - - . go, 275 

Waege &■ Von Mollendorf, observations of, - - - - 90, 275 

Want of drainage indicated by plants, ------ 179 

Warm soil, advantages of, ...._.-- 129 

Warmth of soil, drainage increases, ...... 128 

" power of absorbing and retaining in soils, . - - - 56 

Watercourses, materials for keeping open, .... - 218 

Water beneath pipes, ...----.. 304 

" discharge of, influenced by season, - . - - . 92 

" dissipates ammonia, ..-.---- 142 

" drain, influenced by kind of soil, ----- 91 

" enters joints of pipes, ...-.--- 365 

" fluctuation in,--------- 39 

" from drains, analysis of, - - - - - - - - 168 

" -glass, 197 

«' ground why it rises, ..-.----99 

" line, 98 

" of attraction, .._-.--.- 292 

" of drainage, temperature of, ------ 285 

" of pressure, .-.------- 100 

" " Judge French on, ------ 109 

" power, right to, ..-..-.-- 110 

" quantity required, - .---.-- 10.! 

" spring and ground to be removed, ------ 40 

" stagnant, removed by drains, .--.-- 72 
Water- worts, observations on, ..------24 

Wauer, Mr. H., quoted, 158, 309 



on manures, 



168 



Way, J. T., researches of, -------- 135 

" " on power of soils to absorb moisture, - - - - 189 

Wedge and shoulder drains, ------■?- 22Q 

" " '< not durable, ------ 230 

Weston, Mr., experience with mole plow, ----- 232 



454 INDEX. 

PAGE. 

"Weevil, ravages of, lessened, - - - - . . . -170 

Wharncliffe, Lord, quoted, -----.. 294 

" system, Gisborne on, -----.. 295 

What becomes of the rain ? -----... loi 

AVliat kinds of drains shall be made, - - - - . -217 

AVhat lands need draining, ------.. J77 

Whitehead's drain tile machine, --.-... 343 
Why drainage deepens the soil, ---..•_. ]23 

Width of joints, --------__ 3(55 

Willow, red, impedes drains, ---.._. 267 

Winter killing, draining prevents, ----.. 90 144 

Wooden drains, --------.-21 218 

Yards, tile, 355 

Yeomans, Mr., statement of, ----._. 117 

YvART, Victor, quoted, -----.-..12 



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